diff --git a/.github/workflows/main.yml b/.github/workflows/main.yml index 614f2fc59..af0e0728a 100644 --- a/.github/workflows/main.yml +++ b/.github/workflows/main.yml @@ -12,8 +12,8 @@ jobs: - name: Install Rust run: | rustup set profile minimal - rustup toolchain install 1.78 -c rust-docs - rustup default 1.78 + rustup toolchain install 1.82 -c rust-docs + rustup default 1.82 - name: Install mdbook run: | mkdir bin @@ -25,8 +25,19 @@ jobs: rustup --version rustc -Vv mdbook --version + + # mdBook does not currently have particularly good support for “external” + # crates. To make the test suite work correctly with `trpl`, we must first + # build `trpl` itself (`mdbook` will not do it), and then explicitly pass + # its `deps` path as a library search path for `mdbook test`. That will make + # sure all the crates can be resolved when running the tests. + - name: Build `trpl` crate + run: | + cd packages/trpl + cargo build - name: Run tests - run: mdbook test + run: + mdbook test --library-path packages/trpl/target/debug/deps package_tests: name: Run package tests runs-on: ubuntu-latest @@ -37,8 +48,8 @@ jobs: - name: Install Rust run: | rustup set profile minimal - rustup toolchain install 1.76 -c rust-docs - rustup default 1.76 + rustup toolchain install 1.82 -c rust-docs + rustup default 1.82 - name: Run `tools` package tests run: | cargo test @@ -83,7 +94,7 @@ jobs: aspell --version shellcheck --version - name: Shellcheck - run: find . -name '*.sh' | xargs shellcheck + run: find . -name '*.sh' -print0 | xargs -0 shellcheck - name: Spellcheck run: bash ci/spellcheck.sh list - name: Lint for local file paths diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore index 4c699f440..17127d114 100644 --- a/.gitignore +++ b/.gitignore @@ -5,3 +5,4 @@ book/ target tmp +.nova diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md b/2018-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md index c731bbc95..6ff4dc33e 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-00-oop.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-00-oop.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-00-oop.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-00-oop.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md b/2018-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md index ed1ec4013..28835201b 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-01-what-is-oo.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-01-what-is-oo.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-01-what-is-oo.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-01-what-is-oo.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md b/2018-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md index 1999647aa..b83ab904e 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-02-trait-objects.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-02-trait-objects.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-02-trait-objects.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-02-trait-objects.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md b/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md index 1b74425fe..9513538f5 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md b/2018-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md index f3da1f40d..213bac305 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-00-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-00-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-00-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-00-patterns.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md b/2018-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md index ccf388406..f2dfa71a3 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md b/2018-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md index a3e2bcff7..3eddb4dcd 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-02-refutability.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-02-refutability.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-02-refutability.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-02-refutability.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md b/2018-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md index 0e0929e7b..44c73500e 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-03-pattern-syntax.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md b/2018-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md index b34d6b9b6..16c72a906 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-00-advanced-features.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-00-advanced-features.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-00-advanced-features.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-00-advanced-features.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md b/2018-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md index 34b569fee..7316eb44a 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md b/2018-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md index 4219b208b..88ca1a55b 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-03-advanced-traits.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-03-advanced-traits.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-03-advanced-traits.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-03-advanced-traits.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md b/2018-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md index fecbd52dc..c7c24439f 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-04-advanced-types.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-04-advanced-types.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-04-advanced-types.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-04-advanced-types.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md b/2018-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md index 1bf045090..c46fd485e 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch19-06-macros.md b/2018-edition/src/ch19-06-macros.md index bf019c5d6..838a0b832 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch19-06-macros.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch19-06-macros.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-06-macros.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-06-macros.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-06-macros.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-06-macros.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md b/2018-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md index f9b9e5c2d..cac558489 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md b/2018-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md index 30d0884ad..e1b4200be 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-01-single-threaded.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-01-single-threaded.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-01-single-threaded.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-01-single-threaded.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md b/2018-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md index e8b592ad2..7d54d56bc 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-02-multithreaded.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-02-multithreaded.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-02-multithreaded.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-02-multithreaded.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md b/2018-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md index 928d199be..f4879c4ac 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html). diff --git a/ADMIN_TASKS.md b/ADMIN_TASKS.md index 2a92eefd2..c493a335c 100644 --- a/ADMIN_TASKS.md +++ b/ADMIN_TASKS.md @@ -23,6 +23,11 @@ occasional maintenance tasks. To update the `edition = "[year]"` metadata in all the listings' `Cargo.toml`s, run the `./tools/update-editions.sh` script and commit the changes. +## Update the `edition` in mdBook config + +Open `book.toml` and `nostarch/book.toml` and set the `edition` value in the +`[rust]` table to the new edition. + ## Release a new version of the listings We now make `.tar` files of complete projects containing every listing @@ -68,7 +73,7 @@ extracted into a file. To do that: - If you only want to show part of the code in the file, use anchor comments (`// ANCHOR: some_tag` and `// ANCHOR_END: some_tag`) to mark the parts of the file you want to show. -- For Rust code, use the `{{#rustdoc_include [fileame:some_tag]}}` directive +- For Rust code, use the `{{#rustdoc_include [filename:some_tag]}}` directive within the code blocks in the text. The `rustdoc_include` directive gives the code that doesn't get displayed to `rustdoc` for `mdbook test` purposes. - For anything else, use the `{{#include [filename:some_tag]}}` directive. @@ -133,3 +138,13 @@ $ dot dot/trpl04-01.dot -Tsvg > src/img/trpl04-01.svg In the generated SVG, remove the width and the height attributes from the `svg` element and set the `viewBox` attribute to `0.00 0.00 1000.00 1000.00` or other values that don't cut off the image. + +## Publish a preview to GitHub Pages + +We sometimes publish to GitHub Pages for in-progress previews. The recommended +flow for publishing is: + +- Install the `ghp-import` tool by running `pip install ghp-import` (or `pipx install ghp-import`, using [pipx][pipx]). +- In the root, run `tools/generate-preview.sh` + +[pipx]: https://pipx.pypa.io/stable/#install-pipx diff --git a/Cargo.lock b/Cargo.lock index d54e8284e..493ab8e68 100644 --- a/Cargo.lock +++ b/Cargo.lock @@ -318,9 +318,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "windows-targets" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "6f0713a46559409d202e70e28227288446bf7841d3211583a4b53e3f6d96e7eb" +checksum = "9b724f72796e036ab90c1021d4780d4d3d648aca59e491e6b98e725b84e99973" dependencies = [ "windows_aarch64_gnullvm", "windows_aarch64_msvc", @@ -334,51 +334,51 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "windows_aarch64_gnullvm" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "7088eed71e8b8dda258ecc8bac5fb1153c5cffaf2578fc8ff5d61e23578d3263" +checksum = "32a4622180e7a0ec044bb555404c800bc9fd9ec262ec147edd5989ccd0c02cd3" [[package]] name = "windows_aarch64_msvc" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "9985fd1504e250c615ca5f281c3f7a6da76213ebd5ccc9561496568a2752afb6" +checksum = "09ec2a7bb152e2252b53fa7803150007879548bc709c039df7627cabbd05d469" [[package]] name = "windows_i686_gnu" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "88ba073cf16d5372720ec942a8ccbf61626074c6d4dd2e745299726ce8b89670" +checksum = "8e9b5ad5ab802e97eb8e295ac6720e509ee4c243f69d781394014ebfe8bbfa0b" [[package]] name = "windows_i686_gnullvm" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "87f4261229030a858f36b459e748ae97545d6f1ec60e5e0d6a3d32e0dc232ee9" +checksum = "0eee52d38c090b3caa76c563b86c3a4bd71ef1a819287c19d586d7334ae8ed66" [[package]] name = "windows_i686_msvc" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "db3c2bf3d13d5b658be73463284eaf12830ac9a26a90c717b7f771dfe97487bf" +checksum = "240948bc05c5e7c6dabba28bf89d89ffce3e303022809e73deaefe4f6ec56c66" [[package]] name = "windows_x86_64_gnu" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "4e4246f76bdeff09eb48875a0fd3e2af6aada79d409d33011886d3e1581517d9" +checksum = "147a5c80aabfbf0c7d901cb5895d1de30ef2907eb21fbbab29ca94c5b08b1a78" [[package]] name = "windows_x86_64_gnullvm" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "852298e482cd67c356ddd9570386e2862b5673c85bd5f88df9ab6802b334c596" +checksum = "24d5b23dc417412679681396f2b49f3de8c1473deb516bd34410872eff51ed0d" [[package]] name = "windows_x86_64_msvc" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "bec47e5bfd1bff0eeaf6d8b485cc1074891a197ab4225d504cb7a1ab88b02bf0" +checksum = "589f6da84c646204747d1270a2a5661ea66ed1cced2631d546fdfb155959f9ec" [[package]] name = "xattr" diff --git a/Cargo.toml b/Cargo.toml index 2bddb66f9..c58a59b7e 100644 --- a/Cargo.toml +++ b/Cargo.toml @@ -6,13 +6,7 @@ exclude = [ "linkchecker", # linkchecker is part of the CI workflow "listings", # these are intentionally distinct from the workspace "tmp", # listings are built here when updating output via tools/update-rustc.sh - - # These are used as path dependencies in `rust-lang/rust` (since we are not - # publishing them to crates.io), so they cannot be part of this workspace, - # because path dependencies do not get built as a crate within the hosting - # workspace. - "packages/mdbook-trpl-listing", - "packages/mdbook-trpl-note", + "trpl", # manages its own dependencies as a standalone crate ] [workspace.dependencies] diff --git a/README.md b/README.md index 2d81c6205..59fa241a7 100644 --- a/README.md +++ b/README.md @@ -48,6 +48,16 @@ Building the book requires a custom fork of [mdBook]: $ cargo install mdbook --git https://github.com/RustLangES/mdBook.git ``` +The book also uses two mdbook plugins which are part of this repository. If you +do not install them, you will see warnings when building and the output will not +look right, but you *will* still be able to build the book. To use the plugins, +you should run: + +```bash +$ cargo install --locked --path packages/mdbook-trpl-listing +$ cargo install --locked --path packages/mdbook-trpl-note +``` + ## Building To build the book, type: @@ -78,7 +88,8 @@ $ start chrome.exe .\book\index.html # Windows (Cmd) To run the tests: ```bash -$ mdbook test +$ cd packages/trpl +$ mdbook test --library-path packages/trpl/target/debug/deps ``` ## Contributing diff --git a/book.toml b/book.toml index c79e6ba01..549513362 100644 --- a/book.toml +++ b/book.toml @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ [book] title = "El Lenguaje de Programación Rust" -authors = ["Steve Klabnik", "Carol Nichols", "Contributions from the Rust Community"] +authors = ["Steve Klabnik", "Carol Nichols", "Chris Krycho", "Contributions from the Rust Community"] description = "El libro oficial para aprender el lenguaje de programación Rust, con tutoriales y guías." src = "src" multilingual = false @@ -19,12 +19,35 @@ git-repository-url = "https://github.com/RustLangES/rust-book-es" [preprocessor.catppuccin] assets_version = "0.1.1" # DO NOT EDIT: Managed by `mdbook-catppuccin install` +[output.html.redirect] +"ch17-00-oop.html" = "ch18-00-oop.html" +"ch17-01-what-is-oo.html" = "ch18-01-what-is-oo.html" +"ch17-02-trait-objects.html" = "ch18-02-trait-objects.html" +"ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html" = "ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.html" +"ch18-00-patterns.html" = "ch19-00-patterns.html" +"ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html" = "ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html" +"ch18-02-refutability.html" = "ch19-02-refutability.html" +"ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html" = "ch19-03-pattern-syntax.html" +"ch19-00-advanced-features.html" = "ch20-00-advanced-features.html" +"ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html" = "ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html" +"ch19-03-advanced-traits.html" = "ch20-03-advanced-traits.html" +"ch19-04-advanced-types.html" = "ch20-04-advanced-types.html" +"ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html" = "ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html" +"ch19-06-macros.html" = "ch20-06-macros.html" +"ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html" = "ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.html" +"ch20-01-single-threaded.html" = "ch21-01-single-threaded.html" +"ch20-02-multithreaded.html" = "ch21-02-multithreaded.html" +"ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html" = "ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html" + # Do not sync this preprocessor; it is for the HTML renderer only. [preprocessor.trpl-note] [preprocessor.trpl-listing] output-mode = "default" +[rust] +edition = "2021" + # Original book - Last commit: # d9e9af10d92e32ea02c19cb3cf607aec05aca65b # https://github.com/rust-lang/book/compare/d9e9af1..bebcf52 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/ci/dictionary.txt b/ci/dictionary.txt index c0f4c0ef1..484bdef13 100644 --- a/ci/dictionary.txt +++ b/ci/dictionary.txt @@ -1261,8 +1261,6 @@ Rustaceans abcabcabc abcd abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz -adaptor -adaptors AddAssign Addr adfb @@ -1312,6 +1310,7 @@ bool boolean Boolean Booleans +booleans Bors BorrowMutError BoxMeUp @@ -1319,6 +1318,7 @@ BTreeSet BufRead BufReader BuildHasher +byteorder Cacher cacher Cagain @@ -1360,10 +1360,12 @@ CustomSmartPointer CustomSmartPointers datas DataStruct +dbea deallocate deallocated deallocating deallocation +debounce debuginfo decl decrementing @@ -1402,10 +1404,12 @@ DisplayBacktrace DivAssign DraftPost DSTs +durations ebook ebooks Edsger egular +ElementRef elses emoji encodings @@ -1436,6 +1440,7 @@ filesystems filesystems filmmaking Firefox +FirstAwaitPoint FnMut FnOnce formatter @@ -1444,6 +1449,8 @@ FrenchToast FromIterator FromResidual frontend +FuturesUnordered +GetAwaitPoint getrandom getter getters @@ -1454,6 +1461,7 @@ grapheme Grapheme growable gzip +handoff hardcode hardcoded hardcoding @@ -1498,7 +1506,9 @@ inline instantiation internet interoperate +IntoFuture IntoIterator +intra InvalidDigit invariants ioerror @@ -1513,10 +1523,12 @@ isize iter iterators JavaScript +JoinAll JoinHandle Kays kinded Klabnik +Krycho lang LastWriteTime latin @@ -1545,14 +1557,19 @@ lval macOS Matsakis mathematic +mdbook memoization metadata Metadata metaprogramming mibbit Mibbit +microcontroller +microcontrollers millis minigrep +Miri +miri mixup mkdir MockMessenger @@ -1564,10 +1581,12 @@ monomorphized MoveMessage Mozilla mpsc +MSRV msvc MulAssign multibyte multithreaded +multithreading mutex mutexs Mutex @@ -1575,6 +1594,7 @@ mutexes Mutexes MutexGuard mutext +MyAsyncStateMachine MyBox myprogram namespace @@ -1687,7 +1707,9 @@ OurError OutlinePrint overloadable overread +PageTitleFuture PanicPayload +parallelizable param parameterize ParseIntError @@ -1700,6 +1722,7 @@ PlaceholderType polymorphism PoolCreationError portia +postfix powershell PowerShell powi @@ -1906,6 +1929,8 @@ RangeFull README desestructuradas READMEs +ReadFinished +ReceiverStream rect recurse recv @@ -1939,6 +1964,7 @@ Rustaceans rUsT rustc rustdoc +RUSTFLAGS Rustonomicon rustfix rustfmt @@ -1947,6 +1973,7 @@ sampleproject screenshot searchstring SecondaryColor +SecondAwaitPoint SelectBox semver SemVer @@ -1964,6 +1991,7 @@ SliceIndex Smalltalk snuck someproject +SomeType someusername SPDX spdx @@ -1979,6 +2007,7 @@ stdlib stdout steveklabniks stringify +StreamExt Stroustrup Stroustrups struct @@ -2012,6 +2041,7 @@ TcpStream templating tests Fibonacci +TextAwaitPoint TextField That expresion @@ -2029,6 +2059,8 @@ tlborm tlsv TODO TokenStream +Tokio +tokio toml TOML toolchain @@ -2053,6 +2085,8 @@ uncomment Uncomment uncommenting unevaluated +unhandled +unicode Uninstalling uninstall unittests @@ -2071,6 +2105,7 @@ username USERPROFILE usize UsState +util utils vals variables @@ -2084,6 +2119,7 @@ Vlissides vscode vtable waitlist +wasi wasn weakt WeatherForecast @@ -2102,5 +2138,6 @@ WriteMessage xcode xpression yyyy +zerocopy ZipImpl LIFO diff --git a/dot/trpl04-05.dot b/dot/trpl04-05.dot index ca1f7e06e..ccdad725a 100644 --- a/dot/trpl04-05.dot +++ b/dot/trpl04-05.dot @@ -1,32 +1,38 @@ digraph { - rankdir=LR; - overlap=false; - dpi=300.0; - node [shape="plaintext"]; - - table0[label=< - - - -
s
namevalue
ptr
>]; - table1[label=< - - - - - -
s1
namevalue
ptr
len5
capacity5
>]; - table2[label=< - - - - - - -
indexvalue
0h
1e
2l
3l
4o
>]; - - edge[tailclip="false"]; - table1:pointer:c -> table2:pointee; - table0:borrower:c -> table1:borrowee; -} - + rankdir = LR; + overlap = false; + dpi = 300.0; + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + s [label = < + + + + + +
s
namevalue
ptr
len4
capacity4
>;]; + + subgraph cluster_heap { + peripheries = 0; + rank = "same"; + + hello [label = < + + + + + + +
indexvalue
0h
1e
2l
3l
4o
>;]; + + ahoy [label = < + + + + + +
indexvalue
0a
1h
2o
3y
>;]; + } + + s -> ahoy [tailport = "pointer:c"; headport = "pointee"; tailclip = false;]; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl04-06.dot b/dot/trpl04-06.dot index a23f179a7..ca1f7e06e 100644 --- a/dot/trpl04-06.dot +++ b/dot/trpl04-06.dot @@ -5,37 +5,28 @@ digraph { node [shape="plaintext"]; table0[label=< - + - - +
world
s
namevalue
ptr
len5
ptr
>]; - - table3[label=< - + table1[label=<
s
+ - - - + + +
s1
namevalue
ptr
len11
capacity11
ptr
len5
capacity5
>]; - table4[label=< + table2[label=<
- - - - - -
indexvalue
0h
1e
2l
3l
4o
5
6w
7o
8r
9l
10d
>]; - edge[tailclip="false"]; - table0:pointer2:c -> table4:pointee2; - table3:pointer:c -> table4:pointee; + table1:pointer:c -> table2:pointee; + table0:borrower:c -> table1:borrowee; } diff --git a/dot/trpl04-07.dot b/dot/trpl04-07.dot new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a23f179a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl04-07.dot @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +digraph { + rankdir=LR; + overlap=false; + dpi=300.0; + node [shape="plaintext"]; + + table0[label=< + + + + +
world
namevalue
ptr
len5
>]; + + table3[label=< + + + + + +
s
namevalue
ptr
len11
capacity11
>]; + table4[label=< + + + + + + + + + + + + +
indexvalue
0h
1e
2l
3l
4o
5
6w
7o
8r
9l
10d
>]; + + + edge[tailclip="false"]; + table0:pointer2:c -> table4:pointee2; + table3:pointer:c -> table4:pointee; +} + diff --git a/dot/trpl17-01.dot b/dot/trpl17-01.dot new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ed2d969f2 --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-01.dot @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +digraph { + dpi = 300.0; + + rankdir = "LR"; + + // makes ordering between subgraphs work + newrank = true; + + node [shape = diamond;]; + + subgraph cluster_task_a { + label = "Task A"; + + A1; + A2; + A3; + A4; + + A1 -> A2 -> A3 -> A4 -> A0 [style = invis;]; + + // for vertical alignment purposes only + A0 [style = invis;]; + + // Makes the heights line up between the boxes. + A4 -> A0 [style = invis;]; + } + + subgraph cluster_task_b { + label = "Task B"; + + B0 [style = invis;]; + + B1; + B2; + B3; + + B0 -> B1 -> B2 -> B3 [style = invis;]; + } + + A1 -> B1 -> A2 -> B2 -> A3 -> A4 -> B3; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl17-02.dot b/dot/trpl17-02.dot new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3e4116a7d --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-02.dot @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +digraph { + dpi = 300.0; + + rankdir = "LR"; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + + node [shape = diamond;]; + + // The graphs end up with the correct order, i.e. Task 1 *above* Task 2, when + // this is first. + subgraph cluster_ColleagueB { + label = "Task B"; + B1 -> B2 -> B3; + + B0 [style = invis;]; + B3 -> B0 [style = invis;]; + } + + subgraph cluster_ColleagueA { + newrank = true; + label = "Task A"; + A1 -> A2 -> A3 -> A4; + } +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl17-03.dot b/dot/trpl17-03.dot new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7d5a4971c --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-03.dot @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +digraph { + dpi = 300.0; + + rankdir = "LR"; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + + node [shape = diamond;]; + + // The graphs end up with the correct order, i.e. Task 1 *above* Task 2, when + // this is first. + subgraph cluster_ColleagueB { + label = "Task A"; + A1; + A2; + A0_1 [style = invis;]; + A3; + + A1 -> A2; + A2 -> A0_1 [arrowhead = "tee"; headport = "A0_1:c"; headclip = false;]; + A0_1; + A0_1 -> A3 [dir = both; arrowtail = "tee"; tailclip = false;]; + } + + subgraph cluster_ColleagueA { + newrank = true; + label = "Task B"; + B1 -> B2 -> B3 -> B4; + } + + B3 -> A3; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl17-04.dot b/dot/trpl17-04.dot new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6c63b7bde --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-04.dot @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +digraph { + rankdir = RL; + overlap = false; + dpi = 300.0; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + fut1 [label = < + + + + +
fut1
0
1
>;]; + + edge [tailclip = "false";]; + fut1:source:c -> fut1:target [dir = forward;]; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl17-05.dot b/dot/trpl17-05.dot new file mode 100644 index 000000000..afcf8e77a --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-05.dot @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +digraph { + rankdir = RL; + overlap = false; + dpi = 300.0; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + // Group the two together, which results in the desired alignment. + subgraph { + // But don't show the frame! + style = "invis"; + + fut1 [label = < + + + + +
fut1
?
?
?
>;]; + + fut2 [label = < + + + + +
fut2
0
1
>;]; + + edge [tailclip = "false"; dir = forward]; + fut2:source:c -> fut1:target:e; + } +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl17-06.dot b/dot/trpl17-06.dot new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e036a385c --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-06.dot @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +digraph { + rankdir = LR; + dpi = 300.0; + + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + pinned_box [label = < + + +
Pin
>;]; + + subgraph cluster_box { + label = ""; + peripheries = 0; + + subgraph cluster_box_internal { + peripheries = 1; + label = "b1"; + shape = box; + style = solid; + pin [shape = "point";]; + } + } + + subgraph cluster_deref { + style = bold; + label = "pinned"; + + box [label = < + + + + + +
fut
0
...
1
>;]; + } + + edge [tailclip = false;]; + pinned_box -> pin [tailport = "source:c"; arrowhead = "none";]; + pin -> box [headport = "target";]; + box -> box [tailport = "source:c"; headport = "internal";]; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl17-07.dot b/dot/trpl17-07.dot new file mode 100644 index 000000000..11b79574c --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-07.dot @@ -0,0 +1,64 @@ +digraph { + rankdir = LR; + newrank = true; + dpi = 300.0; + + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + + subgraph cluster_not_fut { + peripheries = 0; + + pin [label = < + + +
Pin
>;]; + + subgraph cluster_boxes { + peripheries = 0; + rank = same; + + subgraph cluster_box_1 { + subgraph cluster_box_2_internal { + label = "b1"; + shape = box; + style = solid; + style = filled; + peripheries = 1; + box1 [shape = "point";style = "invis";]; + } + } + + subgraph cluster_box_2 { + subgraph cluster_box_2_internal { + label = "b2"; + shape = box; + style = solid; + peripheries = 1; + box2 [shape = "point";]; + } + } + } + } + subgraph cluster_target { + style = bold; + label = "pinned"; + + fut [label = < + + + + + +
fut
0
...
1
>;]; + } + + + box1 -> box2 [rankdir = TB; style = invis;]; + + edge [tailclip = false;]; + pin -> box1 [style = "invis";]; + pin -> box2 [tailport = "source:c"; arrowhead = "none";]; + box2 -> fut [headport = "target";]; + fut -> fut [tailport = "source:c"; headport = "internal";]; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl17-08.dot b/dot/trpl17-08.dot new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8e9897f46 --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-08.dot @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +digraph { + rankdir = LR; + overlap = false; + dpi = 300.0; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + newrank = true; + outputorder = in; + compound = true; + labelloc = "c"; + + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + pinned_box [label = < + + +
Pin
>;]; + + + subgraph cluster_deref { + style = dashed; + label = "String"; + + pin [shape = "point";]; + + fut [label = < + + + + + + +
5usizehello
>;]; + } + + edge [tailclip = false;]; + pinned_box -> pin [tailport = "source:c"; arrowhead = "none";]; + pin -> fut [headport = "target";]; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl17-09.dot b/dot/trpl17-09.dot new file mode 100644 index 000000000..de7300751 --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-09.dot @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +digraph { + rankdir = LR; + overlap = false; + dpi = 300.0; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + newrank = true; + outputorder = in; + compound = true; + labelloc = "c"; + + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + pinned_box [label = < + + +
Pin
>;]; + + subgraph cluster_both { + peripheries = 0; + + + + string1 [label = < + + + + + + + + + +
s1
5usizehello
>;]; + + subgraph cluster_deref { + style = dashed; + label = "String"; + peripheries = 1; + + pin [shape = "point";]; + + string2 [label = < + + + + + + + + + + + +
s2
7usizegoodbye
>;]; + } + } + + edge [tailclip = false;]; + pinned_box -> pin [tailport = "source:c"; arrowhead = "none";]; + pin -> string2 [headport = "target";]; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/first-edition/src/associated-types.md b/first-edition/src/associated-types.md index 626048e9e..be7803498 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/associated-types.md +++ b/first-edition/src/associated-types.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#specifying-placeholder-types-in-trait-definitions-with-associated-types) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#specifying-placeholder-types-in-trait-definitions-with-associated-types) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/const-and-static.md b/first-edition/src/const-and-static.md index aa634112b..7e667e50c 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/const-and-static.md +++ b/first-edition/src/const-and-static.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#accessing-or-modifying-a-mutable-static-variable) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html#accessing-or-modifying-a-mutable-static-variable) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/ffi.md b/first-edition/src/ffi.md index 2adaff9d8..a8c3f818e 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/ffi.md +++ b/first-edition/src/ffi.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#calling-rust-functions-from-other-languages) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html#calling-rust-functions-from-other-languages) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/macros.md b/first-edition/src/macros.md index 6bafdc1e4..eb9871ca4 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/macros.md +++ b/first-edition/src/macros.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-06-macros.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-06-macros.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/operators-and-overloading.md b/first-edition/src/operators-and-overloading.md index 921a2a685..a13f44437 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/operators-and-overloading.md +++ b/first-edition/src/operators-and-overloading.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#default-generic-type-parameters-and-operator-overloading) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#default-generic-type-parameters-and-operator-overloading) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/patterns.md b/first-edition/src/patterns.md index d722d397e..7bc6949b2 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/patterns.md +++ b/first-edition/src/patterns.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-03-pattern-syntax.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/procedural-macros.md b/first-edition/src/procedural-macros.md index 9778383d8..3b683a975 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/procedural-macros.md +++ b/first-edition/src/procedural-macros.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-06-macros.html?highlight=procedural#procedural-macros-for-generating-code-from-attributes) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-06-macros.html?highlight=procedural#procedural-macros-for-generating-code-from-attributes) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/raw-pointers.md b/first-edition/src/raw-pointers.md index c149da868..a4cc68d47 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/raw-pointers.md +++ b/first-edition/src/raw-pointers.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#dereferencing-a-raw-pointer) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html#dereferencing-a-raw-pointer) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/trait-objects.md b/first-edition/src/trait-objects.md index 871bad614..a04d16b4b 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/trait-objects.md +++ b/first-edition/src/trait-objects.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-02-trait-objects.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-02-trait-objects.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/type-aliases.md b/first-edition/src/type-aliases.md index 7ac51ff19..d79974e55 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/type-aliases.md +++ b/first-edition/src/type-aliases.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/unsafe.md b/first-edition/src/unsafe.md index be816dfd3..187fef52e 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/unsafe.md +++ b/first-edition/src/unsafe.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/unsized-types.md b/first-edition/src/unsized-types.md index b542df7f5..65e93581f 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/unsized-types.md +++ b/first-edition/src/unsized-types.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-04-advanced-types.html#tipos-de-tamano-dinamico-y-el-trait-sized) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-04-advanced-types.html#tipos-de-tamano-dinamico-y-el-trait-sized) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-02/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-02/Cargo.lock index 0fb52b33c..2aa129803 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-02/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-02/Cargo.lock @@ -2,6 +2,12 @@ # It is not intended for manual editing. version = 3 +[[package]] +name = "byteorder" +version = "1.5.0" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "1fd0f2584146f6f2ef48085050886acf353beff7305ebd1ae69500e27c67f64b" + [[package]] name = "cfg-if" version = "1.0.0" @@ -10,9 +16,9 @@ checksum = "baf1de4339761588bc0619e3cbc0120ee582ebb74b53b4efbf79117bd2da40fd" [[package]] name = "getrandom" -version = "0.2.12" +version = "0.2.15" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "190092ea657667030ac6a35e305e62fc4dd69fd98ac98631e5d3a2b1575a12b5" +checksum = "c4567c8db10ae91089c99af84c68c38da3ec2f087c3f82960bcdbf3656b6f4d7" dependencies = [ "cfg-if", "libc", @@ -28,15 +34,36 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "libc" -version = "0.2.153" +version = "0.2.161" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "9c198f91728a82281a64e1f4f9eeb25d82cb32a5de251c6bd1b5154d63a8e7bd" +checksum = "8e9489c2807c139ffd9c1794f4af0ebe86a828db53ecdc7fea2111d0fed085d1" [[package]] name = "ppv-lite86" -version = "0.2.17" +version = "0.2.20" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "5b40af805b3121feab8a3c29f04d8ad262fa8e0561883e7653e024ae4479e6de" +checksum = "77957b295656769bb8ad2b6a6b09d897d94f05c41b069aede1fcdaa675eaea04" +dependencies = [ + "zerocopy", +] + +[[package]] +name = "proc-macro2" +version = "1.0.89" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "f139b0662de085916d1fb67d2b4169d1addddda1919e696f3252b740b629986e" +dependencies = [ + "unicode-ident", +] + +[[package]] +name = "quote" +version = "1.0.37" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "b5b9d34b8991d19d98081b46eacdd8eb58c6f2b201139f7c5f643cc155a633af" +dependencies = [ + "proc-macro2", +] [[package]] name = "rand" @@ -68,8 +95,46 @@ dependencies = [ "getrandom", ] +[[package]] +name = "syn" +version = "2.0.87" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "25aa4ce346d03a6dcd68dd8b4010bcb74e54e62c90c573f394c46eae99aba32d" +dependencies = [ + "proc-macro2", + "quote", + "unicode-ident", +] + +[[package]] +name = "unicode-ident" +version = "1.0.13" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "e91b56cd4cadaeb79bbf1a5645f6b4f8dc5bde8834ad5894a8db35fda9efa1fe" + [[package]] name = "wasi" version = "0.11.0+wasi-snapshot-preview1" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" checksum = "9c8d87e72b64a3b4db28d11ce29237c246188f4f51057d65a7eab63b7987e423" + +[[package]] +name = "zerocopy" +version = "0.7.35" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "1b9b4fd18abc82b8136838da5d50bae7bdea537c574d8dc1a34ed098d6c166f0" +dependencies = [ + "byteorder", + "zerocopy-derive", +] + +[[package]] +name = "zerocopy-derive" +version = "0.7.35" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "fa4f8080344d4671fb4e831a13ad1e68092748387dfc4f55e356242fae12ce3e" +dependencies = [ + "proc-macro2", + "quote", + "syn", +] diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/output.txt b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/output.txt index 4a36350c2..35e21b0a2 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/output.txt @@ -8,17 +8,20 @@ $ cargo build Compiling rand v0.8.5 Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) error[E0308]: mismatched types - --> src/main.rs:22:21 - | -22 | match guess.cmp(&secret_number) { - | --- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ expected `&String`, found `&{integer}` - | | - | arguments to this method are incorrect - | - = note: expected reference `&String` - found reference `&{integer}` + --> src/main.rs:22:21 + | +22 | match guess.cmp(&secret_number) { + | --- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ expected `&String`, found `&{integer}` + | | + | arguments to this method are incorrect + | + = note: expected reference `&String` + found reference `&{integer}` note: method defined here - --> /rustc/9b00956e56009bab2aa15d7bff10916599e3d6d6/library/core/src/cmp.rs:836:8 + --> file:///home/.rustup/toolchains/1.82/lib/rustlib/src/rust/library/core/src/cmp.rs:838:8 + | +838 | fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Ordering; + | ^^^ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0308`. error: could not compile `guessing_game` (bin "guessing_game") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/Cargo.toml index 78c94fef9..4e348c8d2 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/Cargo.toml @@ -3,6 +3,4 @@ name = "guessing_game" version = "0.1.0" edition = "2021" -# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html - [dependencies] diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/output.txt b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/output.txt index 33409e38c..f55ab0630 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/output.txt @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ $ cargo run Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) - Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.50s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.20s Running `target/debug/guessing_game` Hello, world! diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-01-variables-are-immutable/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-01-variables-are-immutable/output.txt index 73ca9d62f..85efb431e 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-01-variables-are-immutable/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-01-variables-are-immutable/output.txt @@ -4,13 +4,15 @@ error[E0384]: cannot assign twice to immutable variable `x` --> src/main.rs:4:5 | 2 | let x = 5; - | - - | | - | first assignment to `x` - | help: consider making this binding mutable: `mut x` + | - first assignment to `x` 3 | println!("The value of x is: {x}"); 4 | x = 6; | ^^^^^ cannot assign twice to immutable variable + | +help: consider making this binding mutable + | +2 | let mut x = 5; + | +++ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0384`. error: could not compile `variables` (bin "variables") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-03/src/main.rs b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-03/src/main.rs index 1321e5c8f..4631bd96c 100644 --- a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-03/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-03/src/main.rs @@ -6,9 +6,9 @@ fn main() { let x = 5; // x aparece en el ámbito - hacer_una_copia(x); // x deberia moverse a la función, + hacer_una_copia(x); // x deberia moverse a la función, // pero i32 implementa Copy, entonces es - // valido aún despues de llamar a la función + println!("{}", x); // valido aún despues de llamar a la función } // Aquí termina el ámbito, x es destruido con drop. La memoria es liberada. // s ya no existia porque habia sido movido a la función. diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04b-replacement-drop/Cargo.lock similarity index 86% rename from listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04b-replacement-drop/Cargo.lock index d37189b33..2aa4918e5 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04b-replacement-drop/Cargo.lock @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. # It is not intended for manual editing. [[package]] -name = "adder" +name = "ownership" version = "0.1.0" diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/adder/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04b-replacement-drop/Cargo.toml similarity index 76% rename from listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/adder/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04b-replacement-drop/Cargo.toml index e61cb12e3..e8847526d 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/adder/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04b-replacement-drop/Cargo.toml @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ [package] -name = "adder" +name = "ownership" version = "0.1.0" edition = "2021" diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04b-replacement-drop/src/main.rs b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04b-replacement-drop/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..19fa49090 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04b-replacement-drop/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +fn main() { + // ANCHOR: here + let mut s = String::from("hola"); + s = String::from("ahoy"); + + println!("{s}, mundo!"); + // ANCHOR_END: here +} diff --git a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-07-cant-use-option-directly/output.txt b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-07-cant-use-option-directly/output.txt index fa202e621..1eb76de43 100644 --- a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-07-cant-use-option-directly/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-07-cant-use-option-directly/output.txt @@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ error[E0277]: cannot add `Option` to `i8` | = help: the trait `Add>` is not implemented for `i8` = help: the following other types implement trait `Add`: - - > - <&'a i8 as Add> - <&i8 as Add<&i8>> + `&'a i8` implements `Add` + `&i8` implements `Add<&i8>` + `i8` implements `Add<&i8>` + `i8` implements `Add` For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. error: could not compile `enums` (bin "enums") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-10-non-exhaustive-match/output.txt b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-10-non-exhaustive-match/output.txt index 7d9a66196..8cf3aa074 100644 --- a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-10-non-exhaustive-match/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-10-non-exhaustive-match/output.txt @@ -1,22 +1,25 @@ $ cargo run Compiling enums v0.1.0 (file:///projects/enums) error[E0004]: non-exhaustive patterns: `None` not covered - --> src/main.rs:3:15 - | -3 | match x { - | ^ pattern `None` not covered - | + --> src/main.rs:3:15 + | +3 | match x { + | ^ pattern `None` not covered + | note: `Option` defined here - --> /rustc/9b00956e56009bab2aa15d7bff10916599e3d6d6/library/core/src/option.rs:572:1 - ::: /rustc/9b00956e56009bab2aa15d7bff10916599e3d6d6/library/core/src/option.rs:576:5 - | - = note: not covered - = note: the matched value is of type `Option` + --> file:///home/.rustup/toolchains/1.82/lib/rustlib/src/rust/library/core/src/option.rs:571:1 + | +571 | pub enum Option { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ +... +575 | None, + | ---- not covered + = note: the matched value is of type `Option` help: ensure that all possible cases are being handled by adding a match arm with a wildcard pattern or an explicit pattern as shown - | -4 ~ Some(i) => Some(i + 1), -5 ~ None => todo!(), - | + | +4 ~ Some(i) => Some(i + 1), +5 ~ None => todo!(), + | For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0004`. error: could not compile `enums` (bin "enums") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-10/output.txt b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-10/output.txt index dbc9bb13d..9e9b206fe 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-10/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-10/output.txt @@ -9,6 +9,12 @@ error[E0277]: the `?` operator can only be used in a function that returns `Resu | ^ cannot use the `?` operator in a function that returns `()` | = help: the trait `FromResidual>` is not implemented for `()` +help: consider adding return type + | +3 ~ fn main() -> Result<(), Box> { +4 | let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt")?; +5 + Ok(()) + | For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. error: could not compile `error-handling` (bin "error-handling") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/src/lib.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d09383110 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/src/lib.rs @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +pub struct Guess { + value: i32, +} + +impl Guess { + pub fn new(value: i32) -> Guess { + if value < 1 || value > 100 { + panic!("Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {value}."); + } + + Guess { value } + } + + pub fn value(&self) -> i32 { + self.value + } +} diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/src/main.rs b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/src/main.rs index 42b7d32ef..cda389303 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/src/main.rs @@ -1,27 +1,8 @@ +use guessing_game::Guess; use rand::Rng; use std::cmp::Ordering; use std::io; -// ANCHOR: here -pub struct Guess { - value: i32, -} - -impl Guess { - pub fn new(value: i32) -> Guess { - if value < 1 || value > 100 { - panic!("Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {value}."); - } - - Guess { value } - } - - pub fn value(&self) -> i32 { - self.value - } -} -// ANCHOR_END: here - fn main() { println!("Guess the number!"); diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-20/output.txt b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-20/output.txt index 1af8bd5f1..a6783b2cc 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-20/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-20/output.txt @@ -12,23 +12,5 @@ help: consider introducing a named lifetime parameter 9 | fn longest<'a>(x: &'a str, y: &'a str) -> &'a str { | ++++ ++ ++ ++ -error: lifetime may not live long enough - --> src/main.rs:11:9 - | -9 | fn longest(x: &str, y: &str) -> &str { - | - let's call the lifetime of this reference `'1` -10 | if x.len() > y.len() { -11 | x - | ^ returning this value requires that `'1` must outlive `'static` - -error: lifetime may not live long enough - --> src/main.rs:13:9 - | -9 | fn longest(x: &str, y: &str) -> &str { - | - let's call the lifetime of this reference `'2` -... -13 | y - | ^ returning this value requires that `'2` must outlive `'static` - For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0106`. -error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 3 previous errors +error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-24/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-24/src/main.rs index 2937b194c..ca3cf86d2 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-24/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-24/src/main.rs @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ struct ImportantExcerpt<'a> { fn main() { let novel = String::from("Call me Ishmael. Some years ago..."); - let first_sentence = novel.split('.').next().expect("Could not find a '.'"); + let first_sentence = novel.split('.').next().unwrap(); let i = ImportantExcerpt { part: first_sentence, }; diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-10-lifetimes-on-methods/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-10-lifetimes-on-methods/src/main.rs index b8222308d..c04ec3823 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-10-lifetimes-on-methods/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-10-lifetimes-on-methods/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ impl<'a> ImportantExcerpt<'a> { fn main() { let novel = String::from("Call me Ishmael. Some years ago..."); - let first_sentence = novel.split('.').next().expect("Could not find a '.'"); + let first_sentence = novel.split('.').next().unwrap(); let i = ImportantExcerpt { part: first_sentence, }; diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/Cargo.toml index b7d36d44c..e61cb12e3 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/Cargo.toml @@ -3,6 +3,4 @@ name = "adder" version = "0.1.0" edition = "2021" -# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html - [dependencies] diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/output.txt index 128309c12..3b09a15ec 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.57s - Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + Running unittests src/lib.rs (file:///projects/adder/target/debug/deps/adder-7acb243c25ffd9dc) running 1 test test tests::it_works ... ok @@ -13,4 +13,3 @@ test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; fini running 0 tests test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s - diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/src/lib.rs index 7d12d9af8..b93cf3ffd 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/src/lib.rs @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ -pub fn add(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { +pub fn add(left: u64, right: u64) -> u64 { left + right } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-03/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-03/src/lib.rs index 67b6552c7..866f0238b 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-03/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-03/src/lib.rs @@ -1,4 +1,3 @@ -// ANCHOR: here pub fn add(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { left + right } @@ -12,10 +11,9 @@ mod tests { let result = add(2, 2); assert_eq!(result, 4); } - + #[test] fn another() { panic!("Make this test fail"); } } -// ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-05/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-05/src/lib.rs index 0f1bc4e08..0a03a2b44 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-05/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-05/src/lib.rs @@ -1,4 +1,3 @@ -// ANCHOR: here #[derive(Debug)] struct Rectangle { width: u32, @@ -10,4 +9,3 @@ impl Rectangle { self.width > other.width && self.height > other.height } } -// ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-07/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-07/src/lib.rs index 3e5d66bfa..682e8ae17 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-07/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-07/src/lib.rs @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { a + 2 } @@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn it_adds_two() { - assert_eq!(4, add_two(2)); + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-10/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-10/output.txt index 36fae5788..c67b607d8 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-10/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-10/output.txt @@ -13,8 +13,8 @@ failures: I got the value 8 thread 'tests::this_test_will_fail' panicked at src/lib.rs:19:9: assertion `left == right` failed - left: 5 - right: 10 + left: 10 + right: 5 note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-10/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-10/src/lib.rs index 99fc06b8d..3fbde2a1e 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-10/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-10/src/lib.rs @@ -10,12 +10,12 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn this_test_will_pass() { let value = prints_and_returns_10(4); - assert_eq!(10, value); + assert_eq!(value, 10); } #[test] fn this_test_will_fail() { let value = prints_and_returns_10(8); - assert_eq!(5, value); + assert_eq!(value, 5); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-11/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-11/src/lib.rs index f56715263..ccf1eb2a2 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-11/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-11/src/lib.rs @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { a + 2 } @@ -8,16 +8,19 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn add_two_and_two() { - assert_eq!(4, add_two(2)); + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } #[test] fn add_three_and_two() { - assert_eq!(5, add_two(3)); + let result = add_two(3); + assert_eq!(result, 5); } #[test] fn one_hundred() { - assert_eq!(102, add_two(100)); + let result = add_two(100); + assert_eq!(result, 102); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-12/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-12/src/lib.rs index c3961b1f6..9ba15d8b2 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-12/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-12/src/lib.rs @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { internal_adder(a, 2) } -fn internal_adder(a: i32, b: i32) -> i32 { - a + b +fn internal_adder(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right } #[cfg(test)] @@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn internal() { - assert_eq!(4, internal_adder(2, 2)); + let result = internal_adder(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/src/lib.rs index c3961b1f6..9ba15d8b2 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/src/lib.rs @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { internal_adder(a, 2) } -fn internal_adder(a: i32, b: i32) -> i32 { - a + b +fn internal_adder(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right } #[cfg(test)] @@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn internal() { - assert_eq!(4, internal_adder(2, 2)); + let result = internal_adder(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/tests/integration_test.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/tests/integration_test.rs index 3822d6b97..d6b88a750 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/tests/integration_test.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/tests/integration_test.rs @@ -2,5 +2,6 @@ use adder::add_two; #[test] fn it_adds_two() { - assert_eq!(4, add_two(2)); + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-04-bug-in-add-two/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-04-bug-in-add-two/output.txt index 5e91c58b4..927f89144 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-04-bug-in-add-two/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-04-bug-in-add-two/output.txt @@ -9,10 +9,10 @@ test tests::it_adds_two ... FAILED failures: ---- tests::it_adds_two stdout ---- -thread 'tests::it_adds_two' panicked at src/lib.rs:11:9: +thread 'tests::it_adds_two' panicked at src/lib.rs:12:9: assertion `left == right` failed - left: 4 - right: 5 + left: 5 + right: 4 note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-04-bug-in-add-two/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-04-bug-in-add-two/src/lib.rs index f18662526..aed772b0e 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-04-bug-in-add-two/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-04-bug-in-add-two/src/lib.rs @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ // ANCHOR: here -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { a + 3 } // ANCHOR_END: here @@ -10,6 +10,7 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn it_adds_two() { - assert_eq!(4, add_two(2)); + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-07-custom-failure-message/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-07-custom-failure-message/src/lib.rs index 519c7a4c6..8bbaca53f 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-07-custom-failure-message/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-07-custom-failure-message/src/lib.rs @@ -12,8 +12,7 @@ mod tests { let result = greeting("Carol"); assert!( result.contains("Carol"), - "Greeting did not contain name, value was `{}`", - result + "Greeting did not contain name, value was `{result}`" ); } // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-10-result-in-tests/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-10-result-in-tests/src/lib.rs index 6284f4f29..c31cdcae4 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-10-result-in-tests/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-10-result-in-tests/src/lib.rs @@ -1,11 +1,21 @@ +pub fn add(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right +} + #[cfg(test)] mod tests { + use super::*; + + // ANCHOR: here #[test] fn it_works() -> Result<(), String> { - if 2 + 2 == 4 { + let result = add(2, 2); + + if result == 4 { Ok(()) } else { Err(String::from("two plus two does not equal four")) } } + // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/output.txt index 8d700c7cd..bc40c96eb 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/output.txt @@ -4,8 +4,8 @@ $ cargo test Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) running 2 tests -test expensive_test ... ignored -test it_works ... ok +test tests::expensive_test ... ignored +test tests::it_works ... ok test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 1 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/src/lib.rs index d54a6095d..0c8b38def 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/src/lib.rs @@ -1,10 +1,22 @@ -#[test] -fn it_works() { - assert_eq!(2 + 2, 4); +pub fn add(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right } -#[test] -#[ignore] -fn expensive_test() { - // code that takes an hour to run +// ANCHOR: here +#[cfg(test)] +mod tests { + use super::*; + + #[test] + fn it_works() { + let result = add(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); + } + + #[test] + #[ignore] + fn expensive_test() { + // code that takes an hour to run + } } +// ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/src/lib.rs index c3961b1f6..9ba15d8b2 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/src/lib.rs @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { internal_adder(a, 2) } -fn internal_adder(a: i32, b: i32) -> i32 { - a + b +fn internal_adder(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right } #[cfg(test)] @@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn internal() { - assert_eq!(4, internal_adder(2, 2)); + let result = internal_adder(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/tests/integration_test.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/tests/integration_test.rs index e26fa7109..d6b88a750 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/tests/integration_test.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/tests/integration_test.rs @@ -1,6 +1,7 @@ -use adder; +use adder::add_two; #[test] fn it_adds_two() { - assert_eq!(4, adder::add_two(2)); + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-13-fix-shared-test-code-problem/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-13-fix-shared-test-code-problem/src/lib.rs index c3961b1f6..9ba15d8b2 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-13-fix-shared-test-code-problem/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-13-fix-shared-test-code-problem/src/lib.rs @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { internal_adder(a, 2) } -fn internal_adder(a: i32, b: i32) -> i32 { - a + b +fn internal_adder(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right } #[cfg(test)] @@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn internal() { - assert_eq!(4, internal_adder(2, 2)); + let result = internal_adder(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-13-fix-shared-test-code-problem/tests/integration_test.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-13-fix-shared-test-code-problem/tests/integration_test.rs index 58b8b7b89..d18b5b689 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-13-fix-shared-test-code-problem/tests/integration_test.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-13-fix-shared-test-code-problem/tests/integration_test.rs @@ -1,9 +1,11 @@ -use adder; +use adder::add_two; mod common; #[test] fn it_adds_two() { common::setup(); - assert_eq!(4, adder::add_two(2)); + + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-01-show-output/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-01-show-output/output.txt index 58f1ff4a5..b6fa60de5 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-01-show-output/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-01-show-output/output.txt @@ -22,8 +22,8 @@ failures: I got the value 8 thread 'tests::this_test_will_fail' panicked at src/lib.rs:19:9: assertion `left == right` failed - left: 5 - right: 10 + left: 10 + right: 5 note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-01-show-output/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-01-show-output/src/lib.rs index 462d22470..141d51ee6 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-01-show-output/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-01-show-output/src/lib.rs @@ -10,12 +10,12 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn this_test_will_pass() { let value = prints_and_returns_10(4); - assert_eq!(10, value); + assert_eq!(value, 10); } #[test] fn this_test_will_fail() { let value = prints_and_returns_10(8); - assert_eq!(5, value); + assert_eq!(value, 5); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/src/lib.rs index c3961b1f6..9ba15d8b2 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/src/lib.rs @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { internal_adder(a, 2) } -fn internal_adder(a: i32, b: i32) -> i32 { - a + b +fn internal_adder(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right } #[cfg(test)] @@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn internal() { - assert_eq!(4, internal_adder(2, 2)); + let result = internal_adder(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/tests/integration_test.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/tests/integration_test.rs index e26fa7109..d6b88a750 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/tests/integration_test.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/tests/integration_test.rs @@ -1,6 +1,7 @@ -use adder; +use adder::add_two; #[test] fn it_adds_two() { - assert_eq!(4, adder::add_two(2)); + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04/output.txt b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04/output.txt index fd33cb71f..fbc00b5df 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04/output.txt @@ -1,4 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run + Locking 1 package to latest compatible version + Adding closure-example v0.1.0 (/Users/chris/dev/rust-lang/book/tmp/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04) Compiling closure-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/closure-example) Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.43s Running `target/debug/closure-example` diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05/output.txt b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05/output.txt index af22182a1..695ee4bee 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05/output.txt @@ -1,4 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run + Locking 1 package to latest compatible version + Adding closure-example v0.1.0 (/Users/chris/dev/rust-lang/book/tmp/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05) Compiling closure-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/closure-example) Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.43s Running `target/debug/closure-example` diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-08/output.txt b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-08/output.txt index 7f5ce888d..979868dc3 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-08/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-08/output.txt @@ -10,6 +10,11 @@ error[E0507]: cannot move out of `value`, a captured variable in an `FnMut` clos | --- captured by this `FnMut` closure 18 | sort_operations.push(value); | ^^^^^ move occurs because `value` has type `String`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait + | +help: consider cloning the value if the performance cost is acceptable + | +18 | sort_operations.push(value.clone()); + | ++++++++ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0507`. error: could not compile `rectangles` (bin "rectangles") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/listing-14-07/add/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/listing-14-07/add/Cargo.toml index 1448801d5..9e542690c 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/listing-14-07/add/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/listing-14-07/add/Cargo.toml @@ -1,6 +1,3 @@ [workspace] - -members = [ - "adder", - "add_one", -] +resolver = "2" +members = ["adder", "add_one"] diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/Cargo.toml deleted file mode 100644 index c5ea8e510..000000000 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/Cargo.toml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5 +0,0 @@ -[workspace] - -members = [ - "adder", -] diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/adder/src/main.rs b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/adder/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index e7a11a969..000000000 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/adder/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3 +0,0 @@ -fn main() { - println!("Hello, world!"); -} diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace/add/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace/add/Cargo.toml new file mode 100644 index 000000000..61bdb9cbf --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace/add/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +[workspace] +resolver = "2" diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-02-workspace-with-two-crates/add/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-02-workspace-with-two-crates/add/Cargo.toml index 1448801d5..9e542690c 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-02-workspace-with-two-crates/add/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-02-workspace-with-two-crates/add/Cargo.toml @@ -1,6 +1,3 @@ [workspace] - -members = [ - "adder", - "add_one", -] +resolver = "2" +members = ["adder", "add_one"] diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-03-workspace-with-external-dependency/add/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-03-workspace-with-external-dependency/add/Cargo.toml index 1448801d5..9e542690c 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-03-workspace-with-external-dependency/add/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-03-workspace-with-external-dependency/add/Cargo.toml @@ -1,6 +1,3 @@ [workspace] - -members = [ - "adder", - "add_one", -] +resolver = "2" +members = ["adder", "add_one"] diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-04-workspace-with-tests/add/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-04-workspace-with-tests/add/Cargo.toml index 1448801d5..9e542690c 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-04-workspace-with-tests/add/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-04-workspace-with-tests/add/Cargo.toml @@ -1,6 +1,3 @@ [workspace] - -members = [ - "adder", - "add_one", -] +resolver = "2" +members = ["adder", "add_one"] diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-01-adder-crate/add/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-01-adder-crate/add/Cargo.toml index c5ea8e510..38ea3f565 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-01-adder-crate/add/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-01-adder-crate/add/Cargo.toml @@ -1,5 +1,3 @@ [workspace] - -members = [ - "adder", -] +resolver = "2" +members = ["adder"] diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/Cargo.toml index 1448801d5..8c9ab0e12 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/Cargo.toml @@ -1,6 +1,3 @@ [workspace] - -members = [ - "adder", - "add_one", -] +resolver = "2" +members = [ "add_one","adder"] diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/add_one/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/add_one/Cargo.toml index 900018470..8af4ab816 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/add_one/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/add_one/Cargo.toml @@ -3,6 +3,4 @@ name = "add_one" version = "0.1.0" edition = "2021" -# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html - [dependencies] diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/add_one/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/add_one/src/lib.rs index 7d12d9af8..b93cf3ffd 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/add_one/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/add_one/src/lib.rs @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ -pub fn add(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { +pub fn add(left: u64, right: u64) -> u64 { left + right } diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-03-use-rand/add/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-03-use-rand/add/Cargo.toml index 1448801d5..9e542690c 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-03-use-rand/add/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-03-use-rand/add/Cargo.toml @@ -1,6 +1,3 @@ [workspace] - -members = [ - "adder", - "add_one", -] +resolver = "2" +members = ["adder", "add_one"] diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-21/output.txt b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-21/output.txt index 3f00da360..8501007f0 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-21/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-21/output.txt @@ -6,10 +6,14 @@ error[E0596]: cannot borrow `self.sent_messages` as mutable, as it is behind a ` 58 | self.sent_messages.push(String::from(message)); | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `self` is a `&` reference, so the data it refers to cannot be borrowed as mutable | -help: consider changing this to be a mutable reference +help: consider changing this to be a mutable reference in the `impl` method and the `trait` definition + | +2 ~ fn send(&mut self, msg: &str); +3 | } +... +56 | impl Messenger for MockMessenger { +57 ~ fn send(&mut self, message: &str) { | -2 | fn send(&mut self, msg: &str); - | ~~~~~~~~~ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0596`. error: could not compile `limit-tracker` (lib test) due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/output-only-01-comparing-to-reference/output.txt b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/output-only-01-comparing-to-reference/output.txt index d1eccd2b2..75ad91a0b 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/output-only-01-comparing-to-reference/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/output-only-01-comparing-to-reference/output.txt @@ -8,6 +8,11 @@ error[E0277]: can't compare `{integer}` with `&{integer}` | = help: the trait `PartialEq<&{integer}>` is not implemented for `{integer}` = note: this error originates in the macro `assert_eq` (in Nightly builds, run with -Z macro-backtrace for more info) +help: consider dereferencing here + --> file:///home/.rustup/toolchains/1.82/lib/rustlib/src/rust/library/core/src/macros/mod.rs:46:35 + | +46| if !(*left_val == **right_val) { + | + For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. error: could not compile `deref-example` (bin "deref-example") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-09/output.txt b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-09/output.txt index ed4797f16..2e95105fe 100644 --- a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-09/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-09/output.txt @@ -11,10 +11,6 @@ error[E0382]: borrow of moved value: `val` | ^^^^^ value borrowed here after move | = note: this error originates in the macro `$crate::format_args_nl` which comes from the expansion of the macro `println` (in Nightly builds, run with -Z macro-backtrace for more info) -help: consider cloning the value if the performance cost is acceptable - | -9 | tx.send(val.clone()).unwrap(); - | ++++++++ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0382`. error: could not compile `message-passing` (bin "message-passing") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-13/output.txt b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-13/output.txt index 5405f76bc..a4db0dcc3 100644 --- a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-13/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-13/output.txt @@ -6,11 +6,21 @@ error[E0382]: borrow of moved value: `counter` 5 | let counter = Mutex::new(0); | ------- move occurs because `counter` has type `Mutex`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait ... +8 | for _ in 0..10 { + | -------------- inside of this loop 9 | let handle = thread::spawn(move || { | ------- value moved into closure here, in previous iteration of loop ... 21 | println!("Result: {}", *counter.lock().unwrap()); | ^^^^^^^ value borrowed here after move + | +help: consider moving the expression out of the loop so it is only moved once + | +8 ~ let mut value = counter.lock(); +9 ~ for _ in 0..10 { +10 | let handle = thread::spawn(move || { +11 ~ let mut num = value.unwrap(); + | For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0382`. error: could not compile `shared-state` (bin "shared-state") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-14/output.txt b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-14/output.txt index 011e662c0..a0adbc619 100644 --- a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-14/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-14/output.txt @@ -1,28 +1,34 @@ $ cargo run Compiling shared-state v0.1.0 (file:///projects/shared-state) error[E0277]: `Rc>` cannot be sent between threads safely - --> src/main.rs:11:36 - | -11 | let handle = thread::spawn(move || { - | ------------- ^------ - | | | - | ______________________|_____________within this `{closure@src/main.rs:11:36: 11:43}` - | | | - | | required by a bound introduced by this call -12 | | let mut num = counter.lock().unwrap(); -13 | | -14 | | *num += 1; -15 | | }); - | |_________^ `Rc>` cannot be sent between threads safely - | - = help: within `{closure@src/main.rs:11:36: 11:43}`, the trait `Send` is not implemented for `Rc>`, which is required by `{closure@src/main.rs:11:36: 11:43}: Send` + --> src/main.rs:11:36 + | +11 | let handle = thread::spawn(move || { + | ------------- ^------ + | | | + | ______________________|_____________within this `{closure@src/main.rs:11:36: 11:43}` + | | | + | | required by a bound introduced by this call +12 | | let mut num = counter.lock().unwrap(); +13 | | +14 | | *num += 1; +15 | | }); + | |_________^ `Rc>` cannot be sent between threads safely + | + = help: within `{closure@src/main.rs:11:36: 11:43}`, the trait `Send` is not implemented for `Rc>`, which is required by `{closure@src/main.rs:11:36: 11:43}: Send` note: required because it's used within this closure - --> src/main.rs:11:36 - | -11 | let handle = thread::spawn(move || { - | ^^^^^^^ + --> src/main.rs:11:36 + | +11 | let handle = thread::spawn(move || { + | ^^^^^^^ note: required by a bound in `spawn` - --> /rustc/9b00956e56009bab2aa15d7bff10916599e3d6d6/library/std/src/thread/mod.rs:677:1 + --> file:///home/.rustup/toolchains/1.82/lib/rustlib/src/rust/library/std/src/thread/mod.rs:675:8 + | +672 | pub fn spawn(f: F) -> JoinHandle + | ----- required by a bound in this function +... 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-06/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-06/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8eb415ee7 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-06/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +// ANCHOR: all +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + trpl::spawn_task(async { + for i in 1..10 { + println!("hi number {i} from the first task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } + }); + + for i in 1..5 { + println!("hi number {i} from the second task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } + }); +} +// ANCHOR_END: all diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-07/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-07/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7efd72f63 --- /dev/null +++ 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-12/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-12/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c22b7d2d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-12/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: with-move + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + eprintln!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + trpl::join(tx_fut, rx_fut).await; + // ANCHOR_END: with-move + }); +} diff --git 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here + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1500)).await; + } + }; + + trpl::join3(tx1_fut, tx_fut, rx_fut).await; + // ANCHOR_END: here + }); +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7efd72f63 --- /dev/null +++ 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000000000..349041d3e --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +[package] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0bb425d36 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + // ANCHOR: here + trpl::join!(tx1_fut, tx_fut, rx_fut); + // ANCHOR_END: here + }); +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7efd72f63 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,1591 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = "addr2line" +version = "0.21.0" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..249ffd0f6 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9fefdcf46 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/output.txt b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b928fb602 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +$ diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1888a5356 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{future::Future, time::Duration}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + // ANCHOR: here + let futures: Vec>> = + vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; + // ANCHOR_END: here + + trpl::join_all(futures).await; + }); +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7efd72f63 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,1591 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = 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their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..777366051 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{ + future::Future, + pin::{pin, Pin}, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = pin!(async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }); + + let rx_fut = pin!(async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }); + + let 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..41820fc8a --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{ + future::Future, + pin::{pin, Pin}, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + // ANCHOR: here + let tx1_fut = pin!(async move { + // --snip-- + // ANCHOR_END: here + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + // ANCHOR: here + }); + + // ANCHOR_END: here + // ANCHOR: here + let rx_fut = pin!(async { + // 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We will call `slow` here later + }); +} + +// ANCHOR: slow +fn slow(name: &str, ms: u64) { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(ms)); + println!("'{name}' ran for {ms}ms"); +} +// ANCHOR_END: slow diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7efd72f63 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,1591 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = "addr2line" +version = "0.21.0" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "8a30b2e23b9e17a9f90641c7ab1549cd9b44f296d3ccbf309d2863cfe398a0cb" +dependencies = [ + "gimli", +] + +[[package]] +name = "adler" +version = "1.0.2" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "f26201604c87b1e01bd3d98f8d5d9a8fcbb815e8cedb41ffccbeb4bf593a35fe" + +[[package]] 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..165022108 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{thread, time::Duration}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: yields + let a = async { + println!("'a' started."); + slow("a", 30); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("a", 10); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("a", 20); + trpl::yield_now().await; + println!("'a' finished."); + }; + + let b = async { + println!("'b' started."); + slow("b", 75); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 10); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 15); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 35); + trpl::yield_now().await; + println!("'b' finished."); + }; + // 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trpl::run(async { + let slow = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)).await; + "Finally finished" + }; + + match timeout(slow, Duration::from_millis(10)).await { + Ok(message) => println!("Succeeded with '{message}'"), + Err(duration) => { + println!("Failed after {} seconds", duration.as_secs()) + } + } + }); +} + +// ANCHOR: declaration +async fn timeout( + future_to_try: F, + max_time: Duration, +) -> Result { + // Here is where our implementation will go! +} +// ANCHOR_END: declaration diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e3f560b67 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,1634 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = "addr2line" +version = "0.21.0" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9efb5e792 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{future::Future, time::Duration}; + +// ANCHOR: implementation +use trpl::Either; + +// --snip-- +// ANCHOR: implementation + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let slow = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)).await; + "Finally finished" + }; + + match timeout(slow, Duration::from_secs(2)).await { + Ok(message) => println!("Succeeded with '{message}'"), + Err(duration) => { + println!("Failed after {} seconds", duration.as_secs()) + } + } + }); +} + +async fn timeout( + future_to_try: F, + max_time: Duration, +) -> Result { + // ANCHOR: implementation 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-31/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-31/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f03a460aa --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-31/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +// ANCHOR: all +use trpl::StreamExt; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let values = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]; + let iter = values.iter().map(|n| n * 2); + let mut stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(iter); + + while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { + println!("The value was: {value}"); + } + }); +} +// ANCHOR_END: all diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-32/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-32/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1a59804c8 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-32/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-34/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-34/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..de919073f --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-34/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +// ANCHOR: timeout +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let mut messages = + pin!(get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200))); + + while let Some(result) = messages.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} +// ANCHOR_END: timeout + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for 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b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let mut messages = + pin!(get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200))); + + while let Some(result) = messages.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +// ANCHOR: messages +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} +// ANCHOR_END: messages 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StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let mut messages = + pin!(get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200))); + + while let Some(result) = messages.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +// ANCHOR: intervals +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + count += 1; + 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StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: main + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals(); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals); + // ANCHOR_END: main + + while let Some(result) = merged.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + 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b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: main + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval: {count}")) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals); + let mut stream = pin!(merged); + // ANCHOR_END: main + + while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..57ed7bed4 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: throttle + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval: {count}")) + .throttle(Duration::from_millis(100)) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); + let mut stream = pin!(merged); + // ANCHOR_END: throttle + + while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + count += 1; + tx.send(count).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1a59804c8 --- /dev/null +++ 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000000000..e094f067f --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +[package] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ecf406e93 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval #{count}")) + .throttle(Duration::from_millis(500)) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); + let mut stream = pin!(merged); + + while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { + match result { + Ok(item) => println!("{item}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }); +} + +// ANCHOR: errors +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")) { + eprintln!("Cannot send message '{message}': {send_error}"); + break; + } + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + 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b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, thread, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval #{count}")) + .throttle(Duration::from_millis(500)) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); + let mut stream = pin!(merged); + + while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { + match result { + Ok(item) => println!("{item}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }); +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index 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let tx_fut = async { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(received) = rx.recv().await { + println!("Got: {received}"); + } + }; + + // ANCHOR: updated + let tx_fut2 = async { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + trpl::join3(tx_fut, tx_fut2, rx_fut).await; + // ANCHOR_END: updated + }); +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-TODO-04b2/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-TODO-04b2/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3be4eaaa5 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-TODO-04b2/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,540 @@ +# This file is automatically 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"zerocopy-derive", +] + +[[package]] +name = "zerocopy-derive" +version = "0.7.35" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "fa4f8080344d4671fb4e831a13ad1e68092748387dfc4f55e356242fae12ce3e" +dependencies = [ + "proc-macro2", + "quote", + "syn", +] + +[[package]] +name = "zeroize" +version = "1.8.1" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "ced3678a2879b30306d323f4542626697a464a97c0a07c9aebf7ebca65cd4dde" diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/Cargo.toml new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e094f067f --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +[package] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/output.txt b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 000000000..10a18bc48 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +$ cargo run +error: a bin target must be available for `cargo run` diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/src/lib.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..127328314 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/src/lib.rs @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +// ANCHOR: enum +enum PageTitleFuture<'a> { + Initial { url: &'a str }, + GetAwaitPoint { url: &'a str }, + TextAwaitPoint { response: trpl::Response }, +} +// ANCHOR_END: enum diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.lock similarity index 86% rename from listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.lock index 8b8c69d33..d30b928a6 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.lock @@ -3,5 +3,5 @@ version = 3 [[package]] -name = "adder" +name = "async_await" version = "0.1.0" diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.toml new file mode 100644 index 000000000..67729afc8 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +[package] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/output.txt b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 000000000..10a18bc48 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +$ cargo run +error: a bin target must be available for `cargo run` diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..09a980c04 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +trait Stream { + type Item; + fn poll_next( + self: Pin<&mut Self>, + cx: &mut Context<'_>, + ) -> Poll>; +} + +// ANCHOR: here +trait StreamExt: Stream { + async fn next(&mut self) -> Option + where + Self: Unpin; + + // other methods... +} +// ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/output.txt b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/output.txt similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/output.txt rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/output.txt diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-19/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-19/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-19/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-19/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-19/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-19/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-19/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-19/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-19/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-19/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-19/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-19/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-20/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-20/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-20/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-20/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-20/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-20/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-20/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-20/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-20/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-20/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-20/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-20/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-21/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-21/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-21/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-21/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-21/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-21/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-21/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-21/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-21/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-21/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-21/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-21/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-21/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-21/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-21/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-21/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-02/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-02/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 2479d845d..000000000 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-02/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13 +0,0 @@ -fn main() { - // ANCHOR: here - let mut stack = Vec::new(); - - stack.push(1); - stack.push(2); - stack.push(3); - - while let Some(top) = stack.pop() { - println!("{top}"); - } - // ANCHOR_END: here -} diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-10/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-10/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index b5559fd3a..000000000 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-10/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,15 +0,0 @@ -static mut COUNTER: u32 = 0; - -fn add_to_count(inc: u32) { - unsafe { - COUNTER += inc; - } -} - -fn main() { - add_to_count(3); - - unsafe { - println!("COUNTER: {COUNTER}"); - } -} diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-01/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-01/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-01/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-01/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-01/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-01/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-01/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-01/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-01/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-01/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-01/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-01/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-02/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-02/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-02/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-02/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-02/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-02/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-02/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-02/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-02/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-02/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4605557f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-02/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ +fn main() { + // ANCHOR: here + let (tx, rx) = std::sync::mpsc::channel(); + std::thread::spawn(move || { + for val in [1, 2, 3] { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + } + }); + + while let Ok(value) = rx.recv() { + println!("{value}"); + } + // ANCHOR_END: here +} diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/output.txt b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/output.txt similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/output.txt rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/output.txt diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-04/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-04/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-04/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-04/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-04/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-04/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-04/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-04/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-04/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-04/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-04/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-04/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/output.txt b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/output.txt similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/output.txt rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/output.txt diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-07/Cargo.lock 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rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/output.txt b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/output.txt similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/output.txt rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/output.txt diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/src/main.rs rename to 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a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/output.txt b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/output.txt similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/output.txt rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/output.txt diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-11/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-11/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-11/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-11/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-11/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-11/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-11/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-11/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-11/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-11/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-11/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-11/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-12/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-12/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-12/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-12/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-12/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-12/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-13/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-13/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-13/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-13/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-13/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-13/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-13/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-13/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-13/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-13/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-13/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-13/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-14/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-14/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-14/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-14/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-14/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-14/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-14/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-14/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-14/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-14/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-14/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-14/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-15/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-15/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-15/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-15/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-15/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-15/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-15/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-15/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-15/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-15/src/main.rs similarity index 97% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-15/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-15/src/main.rs index 9407cc16a..7edf7f2bb 100644 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-15/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-15/src/main.rs @@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ fn main() { println!("Text message: {text}"); } Message::ChangeColor(r, g, b) => { - println!("Change the color to red {r}, green {g}, and blue {b}") + println!("Change the color to red {r}, green {g}, and blue {b}"); } } } diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-16/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-16/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-16/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-16/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-16/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-16/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-16/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-16/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-16/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-16/src/main.rs similarity index 97% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-16/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-16/src/main.rs index 1e7ad5f19..a31eeffb9 100644 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-16/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-16/src/main.rs @@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ fn main() { println!("Change color to red {r}, green {g}, and blue {b}"); } Message::ChangeColor(Color::Hsv(h, s, v)) => { - println!("Change color to hue {h}, saturation {s}, value {v}") + println!("Change color to hue {h}, saturation {s}, value {v}"); } _ => (), } diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-17/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-17/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-17/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-17/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-17/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-17/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-17/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-17/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-17/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-17/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-17/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-17/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-18/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-18/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-18/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-18/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-18/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-18/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-18/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-18/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-18/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-18/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-18/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-18/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-19/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-19/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-19/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-19/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-19/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-19/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-19/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-19/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-19/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-19/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-19/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-19/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-20/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-20/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-20/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-20/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-20/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-20/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-20/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-20/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-20/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-20/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-20/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-20/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-21/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-21/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-21/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-21/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-21/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-21/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-21/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-21/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-21/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-21/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-21/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-21/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-22/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-22/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-22/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-22/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-22/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-22/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-22/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-22/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-22/src/main.rs 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rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-23/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-23/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-24/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-24/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-24/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-24/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-24/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-24/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-24/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-24/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-24/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-24/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-24/src/main.rs rename to 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a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/rustfmt-ignore b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/rustfmt-ignore similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/rustfmt-ignore rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/rustfmt-ignore diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-26/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-26/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-26/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-26/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-26/Cargo.toml 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a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from 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b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-01/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-01/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-01/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-01/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-01/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-01/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-01/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-01/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-01/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-01/src/main.rs similarity index 54% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-01/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-01/src/main.rs index 893f57890..492b43ba3 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-01/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-01/src/main.rs @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here let mut num = 5; - let r1 = &num as *const i32; - let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32; + let r1 = &raw const num; + let r2 = &raw mut num; // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-02/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-02/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-02/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-02/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-02/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-02/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-02/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-02/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-02/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-02/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-02/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-02/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-03/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-03/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-03/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-03/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-03/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-03/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-03/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-03/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-03/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-03/src/main.rs similarity index 71% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-03/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-03/src/main.rs index 02a0be6b0..6ed8ca2af 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-03/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-03/src/main.rs @@ -2,8 +2,8 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here let mut num = 5; - let r1 = &num as *const i32; - let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32; + let r1 = &raw const num; + let r2 = &raw mut num; unsafe { println!("r1 is: {}", *r1); diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-04/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-04/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-04/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-04/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-04/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-04/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-04/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-04/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-04/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-04/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-04/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-04/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/output.txt b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/output.txt similarity index 89% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/output.txt rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/output.txt index 44bcc0913..514e25331 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/output.txt @@ -12,6 +12,8 @@ error[E0499]: cannot borrow `*values` as mutable more than once at a time | | | second mutable borrow occurs here | | first mutable borrow occurs here | returning this value requires that `*values` is borrowed for `'1` + | + = help: use `.split_at_mut(position)` to obtain two mutable non-overlapping sub-slices For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0499`. error: could not compile `unsafe-example` (bin "unsafe-example") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-06/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-06/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-06/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-06/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-06/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-06/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-06/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-06/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-06/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-06/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-06/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-06/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-07/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-07/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-07/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-07/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-07/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-07/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-07/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-07/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-07/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-07/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-07/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-07/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-08/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-08/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-08/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-08/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-08/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-08/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-08/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-08/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-08/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-08/src/main.rs similarity index 87% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-08/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-08/src/main.rs index 8b56630c9..90c183ade 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-08/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-08/src/main.rs @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ -extern "C" { +unsafe extern "C" { fn abs(input: i32) -> i32; } diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-09/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-09/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-09/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-09/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-09/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-09/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-09/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-09/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-09/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-09/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7d77d51e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-09/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,7 @@ +unsafe extern "C" { + safe fn abs(input: i32) -> i32; +} + +fn main() { + println!("Absolute value of -3 according to C: {}", abs(-3)); +} diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-10/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-10/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-10/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-10/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-10/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-10/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-10/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-10/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-09/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-10/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-09/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-10/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-11/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-11/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-11/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-11/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/output.txt b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 000000000..abddb7362 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +$ cargo +nightly miri run + Compiling unsafe-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/unsafe-example) + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.01s + Running `/Users/chris/.rustup/toolchains/nightly-aarch64-apple-darwin/bin/cargo-miri runner target/miri/aarch64-apple-darwin/debug/unsafe-example` +warning: creating a shared reference to mutable static is discouraged + --> src/main.rs:14:33 + | +14 | println!("COUNTER: {}", COUNTER); + | ^^^^^^^ shared reference to mutable static + | + = note: for more information, see + = note: shared references to mutable statics are dangerous; it's undefined behavior if the static is mutated or if a mutable reference is created for it while the shared reference lives + = note: `#[warn(static_mut_refs)]` on by default + +COUNTER: 3 diff --git a/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..360e3548f --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +static mut COUNTER: u32 = 0; + +/// SAFETY: Calling this from more than a single thread at a time is undefined +/// behavior, so you *must* guarantee you only call it from a single thread at +/// a time. +unsafe fn add_to_count(inc: u32) { + COUNTER += inc; +} + +fn main() { + unsafe { + // SAFETY: This is only called from a single thread in `main`. + add_to_count(3); + println!("COUNTER: {}", COUNTER); + } +} diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-12/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-12/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-12/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-12/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-11/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-12/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-11/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-12/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-12/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-13/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-12/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-13/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-12/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-13/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-12/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-13/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-12/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-13/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-12/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-13/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-13/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-14/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-13/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-14/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-13/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-14/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-13/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-14/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-13/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-14/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-13/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-14/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-14/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-15/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-14/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-15/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-14/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-15/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-14/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-15/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-14/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-15/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-14/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-15/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-15/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-16/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-15/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-16/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-15/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-16/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-15/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-16/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-15/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-16/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-15/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-16/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-16/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-17/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-16/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-17/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-16/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-17/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-16/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-17/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-16/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-17/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-16/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-17/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-17/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-18/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-17/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-18/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-17/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-18/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-17/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-18/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-17/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-18/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-17/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-18/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/output.txt b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/output.txt similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/output.txt rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/output.txt diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-19/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-20/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-19/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-20/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-19/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-20/Cargo.toml similarity index 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diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/output.txt b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/output.txt similarity index 78% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/output.txt rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/output.txt index bc736bd68..3a2342639 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/output.txt @@ -6,11 +6,11 @@ error[E0746]: return type cannot have an unboxed trait object 1 | fn returns_closure() -> dyn Fn(i32) -> i32 { | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ doesn't have a size known at compile-time | -help: return an `impl Trait` instead of a `dyn Trait`, if all returned values are the same type +help: consider returning an `impl Trait` instead of a `dyn Trait` | 1 | fn returns_closure() -> impl Fn(i32) -> i32 { | ~~~~ -help: box the return type, and wrap all of the returned values in `Box::new` +help: alternatively, box the return type, and wrap all of the returned values in `Box::new` | 1 ~ fn returns_closure() -> Box i32> { 2 ~ Box::new(|x| x + 1) diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/Cargo.lock similarity index 77% rename from listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/Cargo.lock index ee5d79095..497817bf2 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/Cargo.lock @@ -1,7 +1,6 @@ # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. # It is not intended for manual editing. -version = 3 - [[package]] -name = "guessing_game" +name = "unsafe-example" version = "0.1.0" + diff --git a/listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/Cargo.toml new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3e8a29201 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +[package] +name = "unsafe-example" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +[dependencies] diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/output.txt b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/output.txt similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/output.txt rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/output.txt diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2..000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2..000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2..000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2..000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2..000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/output.txt b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/output.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 08a28cc32..000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/output.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,15 +0,0 @@ -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -error[E0507]: cannot move out of `worker.thread` which is behind a mutable reference - --> src/lib.rs:52:13 - | -52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ------ `worker.thread` moved due to this method call - | | - | move occurs because `worker.thread` has type `JoinHandle<()>`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait - | -note: `JoinHandle::::join` takes ownership of the receiver `self`, which moves `worker.thread` - --> /rustc/9b00956e56009bab2aa15d7bff10916599e3d6d6/library/std/src/thread/mod.rs:1657:17 - -For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0507`. -error: could not compile `hello` (lib) due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2..000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2..000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2..000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2..000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2..000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-01/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-01/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-01/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-01/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-01/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-01/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-01/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-01/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-01/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-01/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-01/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-01/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-02/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-02/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-02/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-02/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-02/src/main.rs similarity index 91% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-02/src/main.rs index f139846c6..1eff2eef3 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-02/src/main.rs @@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader .lines() .map(|result| result.unwrap()) diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-03/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-03/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-03/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-03/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-03/src/main.rs similarity index 92% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-03/src/main.rs index c72d4a9c6..17c8401d4 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-03/src/main.rs @@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader .lines() .map(|result| result.unwrap()) diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/src/main.rs similarity index 94% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/src/main.rs index d4b78b640..437d9b626 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/src/main.rs @@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader .lines() .map(|result| result.unwrap()) diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/src/main.rs similarity index 94% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/src/main.rs index 5523a42d7..843d84676 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/src/main.rs @@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ fn main() { // --snip-- fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); if request_line == "GET / HTTP/1.1" { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/src/main.rs index a14b7d538..e19467b83 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/src/main.rs @@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); if request_line == "GET / HTTP/1.1" { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/src/main.rs similarity index 94% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/src/main.rs index ffc51e803..0f9356ab0 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/src/main.rs @@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ fn main() { fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { // --snip-- // ANCHOR_END: here - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); // ANCHOR: here diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/src/main.rs similarity index 96% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/src/main.rs index 5a18b45c0..0679ec600 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/src/main.rs @@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { // --snip-- // ANCHOR_END: here - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); // ANCHOR: here diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/src/main.rs index 1181357b0..075a0d9de 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR_END: here fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/output.txt b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/output.txt similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/output.txt rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/output.txt diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/src/main.rs index 21b9a80f1..bde3e29d1 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/src/main.rs @@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR_END: here fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2..1f075fde5 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2..1f075fde5 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2..1f075fde5 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2..1f075fde5 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/output.txt b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/output.txt similarity index 82% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/output.txt rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/output.txt index cd06ca1b6..276826551 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/output.txt @@ -16,6 +16,12 @@ note: consider changing this parameter type in method `new` to borrow instead if | 47 | fn new(id: usize, receiver: mpsc::Receiver) -> Worker { | --- in this method ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ this parameter takes ownership of the value +help: consider moving the expression out of the loop so it is only moved once + | +25 ~ let mut value = Worker::new(id, receiver); +26 ~ for id in 0..size { +27 ~ workers.push(value); + | For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0382`. error: could not compile `hello` (lib) due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f075fde5 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f075fde5 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f075fde5 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f075fde5 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f075fde5 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/output.txt b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c0165dbb8 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) +error[E0507]: cannot move out of `worker.thread` which is behind a mutable reference + --> src/lib.rs:52:13 + | +52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ------ `worker.thread` moved due to this method call + | | + | move occurs because `worker.thread` has type `JoinHandle<()>`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait + | +note: `JoinHandle::::join` takes ownership of the receiver `self`, which moves `worker.thread` + --> file:///home/.rustup/toolchains/1.82/lib/rustlib/src/rust/library/std/src/thread/mod.rs:1763:17 + | +1763 | pub fn join(self) -> Result { + | ^^^^ + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0507`. +error: could not compile `hello` (lib) due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f075fde5 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/src/main.rs index b6aa046d1..acd703f27 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/src/main.rs @@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/src/main.rs index b6aa046d1..acd703f27 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/src/main.rs @@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/src/main.rs index 86e8d9e78..ee0f1efe7 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/src/main.rs @@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR_END: here fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/output.txt b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/output.txt similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/output.txt rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/output.txt diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs index f7b42167f..e68f72c70 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs @@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/output.txt b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/output.txt similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/output.txt rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/output.txt diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f075fde5 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/output.txt b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/output.txt similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/output.txt rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/output.txt diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f075fde5 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/output.txt b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/output.txt similarity index 65% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/output.txt rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/output.txt index ed9707326..1ac14a444 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/output.txt @@ -1,17 +1,20 @@ $ cargo check Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) error[E0599]: no method named `join` found for enum `Option` in the current scope - --> src/lib.rs:52:27 - | -52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); - | ^^^^ method not found in `Option>` - | + --> src/lib.rs:52:27 + | +52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); + | ^^^^ method not found in `Option>` + | note: the method `join` exists on the type `JoinHandle<()>` - --> /rustc/9b00956e56009bab2aa15d7bff10916599e3d6d6/library/std/src/thread/mod.rs:1657:5 + --> file:///home/.rustup/toolchains/1.82/lib/rustlib/src/rust/library/std/src/thread/mod.rs:1763:5 + | +1763 | pub fn join(self) -> Result { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ help: consider using `Option::expect` to unwrap the `JoinHandle<()>` value, panicking if the value is an `Option::None` - | -52 | worker.thread.expect("REASON").join().unwrap(); - | +++++++++++++++++ + | +52 | worker.thread.expect("REASON").join().unwrap(); + | +++++++++++++++++ error[E0308]: mismatched types --> src/lib.rs:72:22 diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f075fde5 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f075fde5 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/main.rs index b6aa046d1..acd703f27 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/main.rs @@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs index b6aa046d1..acd703f27 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs @@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/nostarch/book.toml b/nostarch/book.toml index 55528625d..ce0abdc51 100644 --- a/nostarch/book.toml +++ b/nostarch/book.toml @@ -13,3 +13,6 @@ build-dir = "../tmp" [preprocessor.trpl-listing] output-mode = "simple" + +[rust] +edition = "2021" diff --git a/nostarch/chapter07.md b/nostarch/chapter07.md index 9fef53de7..0a7a40793 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter07.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter07.md @@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ executable. Instead, they define functionality intended to be shared with multiple projects. For example, the `rand` crate we used in Chapter 2 provides functionality that generates random numbers. Most of the time when Rustaceans say “crate”, they mean library crate, and they -use “crate” interchangeably with the general programming concept of a “library". +use “crate” interchangeably with the general programming concept of a “library”. The *crate root* is a source file that the Rust compiler starts from and makes up the root module of your crate (we’ll explain modules in depth in the @@ -139,37 +139,35 @@ in the compiler, and how most developers organize their code. We’ll be going through examples of each of these rules throughout this chapter, but this is a great place to refer to as a reminder of how modules work. -- **Start from the crate root**: When compiling a crate, the compiler first +* **Start from the crate root**: When compiling a crate, the compiler first looks in the crate root file (usually *src/lib.rs* for a library crate or *src/main.rs* for a binary crate) for code to compile. -- **Declaring modules**: In the crate root file, you can declare new modules; -say you declare a “garden” module with `mod garden;`. The compiler will look -for the module’s code in these places: - - Inline, within curly brackets that replace the semicolon following `mod - garden` - - In the file *src/garden.rs* - - In the file *src/garden/mod.rs* -- **Declaring submodules**: In any file other than the crate root, you can +* **Declaring modules**: In the crate root file, you can declare new modules; + say you declare a “garden” module with `mod garden;`. The compiler will look + for the module’s code in these places: + * Inline, within curly brackets that replace the semicolon following `mod garden` + * In the file *src/garden.rs* + * In the file *src/garden/mod.rs* +* **Declaring submodules**: In any file other than the crate root, you can declare submodules. For example, you might declare `mod vegetables;` in *src/garden.rs*. The compiler will look for the submodule’s code within the directory named for the parent module in these places: - - Inline, directly following `mod vegetables`, within curly brackets instead + * Inline, directly following `mod vegetables`, within curly brackets instead of the semicolon - - In the file *src/garden/vegetables.rs* - - In the file *src/garden/vegetables/mod.rs* -- **Paths to code in modules**: Once a module is part of your crate, you can + * In the file *src/garden/vegetables.rs* + * In the file *src/garden/vegetables/mod.rs* +* **Paths to code in modules**: Once a module is part of your crate, you can refer to code in that module from anywhere else in that same crate, as long as the privacy rules allow, using the path to the code. For example, an `Asparagus` type in the garden vegetables module would be found at `crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus`. -- **Private vs. public**: Code within a module is private from its parent +* **Private vs. public**: Code within a module is private from its parent modules by default. To make a module public, declare it with `pub mod` instead of `mod`. To make items within a public module public as well, use `pub` before their declarations. -- **The `use` keyword**: Within a scope, the `use` keyword creates shortcuts to +* **The `use` keyword**: Within a scope, the `use` keyword creates shortcuts to items to reduce repetition of long paths. In any scope that can refer to - `crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus`, you can create a shortcut with `use - crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus;` and from then on you only need to + `crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus`, you can create a shortcut with `use crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus;` and from then on you only need to write `Asparagus` to make use of that type in the scope. Here, we create a binary crate named `backyard` that illustrates these rules. @@ -198,7 +196,7 @@ pub mod garden; fn main() { let plant = Asparagus {}; - println!("I'm growing {:?}!", plant); + println!("I'm growing {plant:?}!"); } ``` @@ -243,8 +241,7 @@ chefs and cooks work in the kitchen, dishwashers clean up, and managers do administrative work. To structure our crate in this way, we can organize its functions into nested -modules. Create a new library named `restaurant` by running `cargo new -restaurant --lib`. Then enter the code in Listing 7-1 into *src/lib.rs* to +modules. Create a new library named `restaurant` by running `cargo new restaurant --lib`. Then enter the code in Listing 7-1 into *src/lib.rs* to define some modules and function signatures; this code is the front of house section. @@ -566,7 +563,7 @@ and `fn add_to_waitlist` lets us call the function from `eat_at_restaurant` Now the code will compile! To see why adding the `pub` keyword lets us use -these paths in `add_to_waitlist` with respect to the privacy rules, let’s look +these paths in `eat_at_restaurant` with respect to the privacy rules, let’s look at the absolute and the relative paths. In the absolute path, we start with `crate`, the root of our crate’s module @@ -594,26 +591,27 @@ changes to your public API to make it easier for people to depend on your crate. These considerations are out of the scope of this book; if you’re interested in this topic, see The Rust API Guidelines at *https://rust-lang.github.io/api-guidelines/*. -> #### Best Practices for Packages with a Binary and a Library -> -> We mentioned that a package can contain both a *src/main.rs* binary crate -> root as well as a *src/lib.rs* library crate root, and both crates will have -> the package name by default. Typically, packages with this pattern of -> containing both a library and a binary crate will have just enough code in the -> binary crate to start an executable that calls code within the library crate. -> This lets other projects benefit from most of the functionality that the -> package provides because the library crate’s code can be shared. -> -> The module tree should be defined in *src/lib.rs*. Then, any public items can -> be used in the binary crate by starting paths with the name of the package. -> The binary crate becomes a user of the library crate just like a completely -> external crate would use the library crate: it can only use the public API. -> This helps you design a good API; not only are you the author, you’re also a -> client! -> -> In Chapter 12, we’ll demonstrate this organizational -> practice with a command-line program that will contain both a binary crate -> and a library crate. + > + > #### Best Practices for Packages with a Binary and a Library + > + > We mentioned that a package can contain both a *src/main.rs* binary crate + > root as well as a *src/lib.rs* library crate root, and both crates will have + > the package name by default. Typically, packages with this pattern of + > containing both a library and a binary crate will have just enough code in the + > binary crate to start an executable that calls code within the library crate. + > This lets other projects benefit from most of the functionality that the + > package provides because the library crate’s code can be shared. + > + > The module tree should be defined in *src/lib.rs*. Then, any public items can + > be used in the binary crate by starting paths with the name of the package. + > The binary crate becomes a user of the library crate just like a completely + > external crate would use the library crate: it can only use the public API. + > This helps you design a good API; not only are you the author, you’re also a + > client! + > + > In Chapter 12, we’ll demonstrate this organizational + > practice with a command-line program that will contain both a binary crate + > and a library crate. ### Starting Relative Paths with `super` @@ -856,8 +854,7 @@ the shortcut in the parent module with `super::hosting` within the child ### Creating Idiomatic `use` Paths -In Listing 7-11, you might have wondered why we specified `use -crate::front_of_house::hosting` and then called `hosting::add_to_waitlist` in +In Listing 7-11, you might have wondered why we specified `use crate::front_of_house::hosting` and then called `hosting::add_to_waitlist` in `eat_at_restaurant`, rather than specifying the `use` path all the way out to the `add_to_waitlist` function to achieve the same result, as in Listing 7-13. @@ -1002,8 +999,7 @@ from a new scope with `pub use` Before this change, external code would have to call the `add_to_waitlist` function by using the path `restaurant::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist()`, which also would have -required the `front_of_house` module to be marked as `pub`. Now that this `pub -use` has re-exported the `hosting` module from the root module, external code +required the `front_of_house` module to be marked as `pub`. Now that this `pub use` has re-exported the `hosting` module from the root module, external code can use the path `restaurant::hosting::add_to_waitlist()` instead. Re-exporting is useful when the internal structure of your code is different @@ -1246,29 +1242,30 @@ root, and not declared as a child of the `front_of_house` module. The compiler’s rules for which files to check for which modules’ code mean the directories and files more closely match the module tree. -> ### Alternate File Paths -> -> So far we’ve covered the most idiomatic file paths the Rust compiler uses, -> but Rust also supports an older style of file path. For a module named -> `front_of_house` declared in the crate root, the compiler will look for the -> module’s code in: -> -> * *src/front_of_house.rs* (what we covered) -> * *src/front_of_house/mod.rs* (older style, still supported path) -> -> For a module named `hosting` that is a submodule of `front_of_house`, the -> compiler will look for the module’s code in: -> -> * *src/front_of_house/hosting.rs* (what we covered) -> * *src/front_of_house/hosting/mod.rs* (older style, still supported path) -> -> If you use both styles for the same module, you’ll get a compiler error. -> Using a mix of both styles for different modules in the same project is -> allowed, but might be confusing for people navigating your project. -> -> The main downside to the style that uses files named *mod.rs* is that your -> project can end up with many files named *mod.rs*, which can get confusing -> when you have them open in your editor at the same time. + > + > ### Alternate File Paths + > + > So far we’ve covered the most idiomatic file paths the Rust compiler uses, + > but Rust also supports an older style of file path. For a module named + > `front_of_house` declared in the crate root, the compiler will look for the + > module’s code in: + > + > * *src/front_of_house.rs* (what we covered) + > * *src/front_of_house/mod.rs* (older style, still supported path) + > + > For a module named `hosting` that is a submodule of `front_of_house`, the + > compiler will look for the module’s code in: + > + > * *src/front_of_house/hosting.rs* (what we covered) + > * *src/front_of_house/hosting/mod.rs* (older style, still supported path) + > + > If you use both styles for the same module, you’ll get a compiler error. + > Using a mix of both styles for different modules in the same project is + > allowed, but might be confusing for people navigating your project. + > + > The main downside to the style that uses files named *mod.rs* is that your + > project can end up with many files named *mod.rs*, which can get confusing + > when you have them open in your editor at the same time. We’ve moved each module’s code to a separate file, and the module tree remains the same. The function calls in `eat_at_restaurant` will work without any diff --git a/nostarch/chapter09.md b/nostarch/chapter09.md index 4aa81123f..a7188076c 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter09.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter09.md @@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ about returning `Result` values. Additionally, we’ll explore considerations when deciding whether to try to recover from an error or to stop execution. -## Unrecoverable Errors with panic! +## Unrecoverable Errors with `panic!` Sometimes bad things happen in your code, and there’s nothing you can do about it. In these cases, Rust has the `panic!` macro. There are two ways to cause a @@ -45,20 +45,20 @@ panic occurs to make it easier to track down the source of the panic. > ### Unwinding the Stack or Aborting in Response to a Panic > > By default, when a panic occurs the program starts *unwinding*, which means -Rust walks back up the stack and cleans up the data from each function it -encounters. However, walking back and cleaning up is a lot of work. Rust, -therefore, allows you to choose the alternative of immediately *aborting*, -which ends the program without cleaning up. +> Rust walks back up the stack and cleans up the data from each function it +> encounters. However, walking back and cleaning up is a lot of work. Rust, +> therefore, allows you to choose the alternative of immediately *aborting*, +> which ends the program without cleaning up. > > Memory that the program was using will then need to be cleaned up by the -operating system. If in your project you need to make the resultant binary as -small as possible, you can switch from unwinding to aborting upon a panic by -adding `panic = 'abort'` to the appropriate `[profile]` sections in your -*Cargo.toml* file. For example, if you want to abort on panic in release mode, -add this: +> operating system. If in your project you need to make the resultant binary as +> small as possible, you can switch from unwinding to aborting upon a panic by +> adding `panic = 'abort'` to the appropriate `[profile]` sections in your +> *Cargo.toml* file. For example, if you want to abort on panic in release mode, +> add this: > -> ``` -> [profile.release] +> ```toml +> profile.release > panic = 'abort' > ``` @@ -75,9 +75,13 @@ fn main() { When you run the program, you’ll see something like this: ``` -thread 'main' panicked at 'crash and burn', src/main.rs:2:5 -note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display -a backtrace +$ cargo run + Compiling panic v0.1.0 (file:///projects/panic) + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.25s + Running `target/debug/panic` +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:2:5: +crash and burn +note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace ``` The call to `panic!` causes the error message contained in the last two lines. @@ -91,6 +95,9 @@ be in code that our code calls, and the filename and line number reported by the error message will be someone else’s code where the `panic!` macro is called, not the line of our code that eventually led to the `panic!` call. + + + We can use the backtrace of the functions the `panic!` call came from to figure out the part of our code that is causing the problem. To understand how to use a `panic!` backtrace, let’s look at another example and see what it’s like when @@ -108,8 +115,8 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 9-1: Attempting to access an element beyond the end of a vector, which -will cause a call to `panic!` +Listing 9-1: Attempting to access an element beyond the +end of a vector, which will cause a call to `panic!` Here, we’re attempting to access the 100th element of our vector (which is at index 99 because indexing starts at zero), but the vector has only three @@ -130,12 +137,17 @@ element at an index that doesn’t exist, Rust will stop execution and refuse to continue. Let’s try it and see: ``` -thread 'main' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 3 but the index is -99', src/main.rs:4:5 +$ cargo run + Compiling panic v0.1.0 (file:///projects/panic) + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.27s + Running `target/debug/panic` +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:4:6: +index out of bounds: the len is 3 but the index is 99 note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace ``` -This error points at line 4 of our *main.rs* where we attempt to access `index`. +This error points at line 4 of our *main.rs* where we attempt to access index +`99` of the vector in `v`. The `note:` line tells us that we can set the `RUST_BACKTRACE` environment variable to get a backtrace of exactly what happened to cause the error. A @@ -149,40 +161,39 @@ library code, or crates that you’re using. Let’s try getting a backtrace by setting the `RUST_BACKTRACE` environment variable to any value except `0`. Listing 9-2 shows output similar to what you’ll see. + + ``` $ RUST_BACKTRACE=1 cargo run -thread 'main' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 3 but the index is -99', src/main.rs:4:5 +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:4:6: +index out of bounds: the len is 3 but the index is 99 stack backtrace: 0: rust_begin_unwind - at /rustc/e092d0b6b43f2de967af0887873151bb1c0b18d3/library/std -/src/panicking.rs:584:5 + at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/std/src/panicking.rs:645:5 1: core::panicking::panic_fmt - at /rustc/e092d0b6b43f2de967af0887873151bb1c0b18d3/library/core -/src/panicking.rs:142:14 + at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/core/src/panicking.rs:72:14 2: core::panicking::panic_bounds_check - at /rustc/e092d0b6b43f2de967af0887873151bb1c0b18d3/library/core -/src/panicking.rs:84:5 + at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/core/src/panicking.rs:208:5 3: >::index - at /rustc/e092d0b6b43f2de967af0887873151bb1c0b18d3/library/core -/src/slice/index.rs:242:10 + at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/core/src/slice/index.rs:255:10 4: core::slice::index:: for [T]>::index - at /rustc/e092d0b6b43f2de967af0887873151bb1c0b18d3/library/core -/src/slice/index.rs:18:9 + at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/core/src/slice/index.rs:18:9 5: as core::ops::index::Index>::index - at /rustc/e092d0b6b43f2de967af0887873151bb1c0b18d3/library/alloc -/src/vec/mod.rs:2591:9 + at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/alloc/src/vec/mod.rs:2770:9 6: panic::main - at ./src/main.rs:4:5 + at ./src/main.rs:4:6 7: core::ops::function::FnOnce::call_once - at /rustc/e092d0b6b43f2de967af0887873151bb1c0b18d3/library/core -/src/ops/function.rs:248:5 -note: Some details are omitted, run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=full` for a verbose -backtrace. + at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/core/src/ops/function.rs:250:5 +note: Some details are omitted, run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=full` for a verbose backtrace. ``` -Listing 9-2: The backtrace generated by a call to `panic!` displayed when the -environment variable `RUST_BACKTRACE` is set +Listing 9-2: The backtrace generated by a call to +`panic!` displayed when the environment variable `RUST_BACKTRACE` is set That’s a lot of output! The exact output you see might be different depending on your operating system and Rust version. In order to get backtraces with this @@ -200,10 +211,11 @@ panics in the future, you’ll need to figure out what action the code is taking with what values to cause the panic and what the code should do instead. We’ll come back to `panic!` and when we should and should not use `panic!` to -handle error conditions in “To panic! or Not to panic!” on page XX. Next, we’ll -look at how to recover from an error using `Result`. +handle error conditions in the “To `panic!` or Not to +`panic!`” section later in this +chapter. Next, we’ll look at how to recover from an error using `Result`. -## Recoverable Errors with Result +## Recoverable Errors with `Result` Most errors aren’t serious enough to require the program to stop entirely. Sometimes when a function fails it’s for a reason that you can easily interpret @@ -211,8 +223,8 @@ and respond to. For example, if you try to open a file and that operation fails because the file doesn’t exist, you might want to create the file instead of terminating the process. -Recall from “Handling Potential Failure with Result” on page XX that the -`Result` enum is defined as having two variants, `Ok` and `Err`, as follows: +Recall from “Handling Potential Failure with `Result`” in Chapter 2 that the `Result` enum is defined as having two +variants, `Ok` and `Err`, as follows: ``` enum Result { @@ -277,15 +289,13 @@ fn main() { let greeting_file = match greeting_file_result { Ok(file) => file, - Err(error) => { - panic!("Problem opening the file: {:?}", error); - } + Err(error) => panic!("Problem opening the file: {error:?}"), }; } ``` -Listing 9-4: Using a `match` expression to handle the `Result` variants that -might be returned +Listing 9-4: Using a `match` expression to handle the +`Result` variants that might be returned Note that, like the `Option` enum, the `Result` enum and its variants have been brought into scope by the prelude, so we don’t need to specify `Result::` @@ -302,9 +312,13 @@ there’s no file named *hello.txt* in our current directory and we run this code, we’ll see the following output from the `panic!` macro: ``` -thread 'main' panicked at 'Problem opening the file: Os { code: - 2, kind: NotFound, message: "No such file or directory" }', -src/main.rs:8:23 +$ cargo run + Compiling error-handling v0.1.0 (file:///projects/error-handling) + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.73s + Running `target/debug/error-handling` +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:8:23: +Problem opening the file: Os { code: 2, kind: NotFound, message: "No such file or directory" } +note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace ``` As usual, this output tells us exactly what has gone wrong. @@ -321,6 +335,9 @@ add an inner `match` expression, shown in Listing 9-5. Filename: src/main.rs + + ``` use std::fs::File; use std::io::ErrorKind; @@ -331,27 +348,20 @@ fn main() { let greeting_file = match greeting_file_result { Ok(file) => file, Err(error) => match error.kind() { - ErrorKind::NotFound => { - match File::create("hello.txt") { - Ok(fc) => fc, - Err(e) => panic!( - "Problem creating the file: {:?}", - e - ), - } - } + ErrorKind::NotFound => match File::create("hello.txt") { + Ok(fc) => fc, + Err(e) => panic!("Problem creating the file: {e:?}"), + }, other_error => { - panic!( - "Problem opening the file: {:?}", - other_error - ); + panic!("Problem opening the file: {other_error:?}"); } }, }; } ``` -Listing 9-5: Handling different kinds of errors in different ways +Listing 9-5: Handling different kinds of errors in +different ways The type of the value that `File::open` returns inside the `Err` variant is `io::Error`, which is a struct provided by the standard library. This struct @@ -370,41 +380,42 @@ file can’t be created, a different error message is printed. The second arm of the outer `match` stays the same, so the program panics on any error besides the missing file error. -#### Alternatives to Using match with Result - -That’s a lot of `match`! The `match` expression is very useful but also very -much a primitive. In Chapter 13, you’ll learn about closures, which are used -with many of the methods defined on `Result`. These methods can be more -concise than using `match` when handling `Result` values in your code. - -For example, here’s another way to write the same logic as shown in Listing -9-5, this time using closures and the `unwrap_or_else` method: - -``` -// src/main.rs -use std::fs::File; -use std::io::ErrorKind; - -fn main() { - let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt").unwrap_or_else(|error| { - if error.kind() == ErrorKind::NotFound { - File::create("hello.txt").unwrap_or_else(|error| { - panic!("Problem creating the file: {:?}", error); - }) - } else { - panic!("Problem opening the file: {:?}", error); - } - }); -} -``` - -Although this code has the same behavior as Listing 9-5, it doesn’t contain any -`match` expressions and is cleaner to read. Come back to this example after -you’ve read Chapter 13, and look up the `unwrap_or_else` method in the standard -library documentation. Many more of these methods can clean up huge nested -`match` expressions when you’re dealing with errors. +> #### Alternatives to Using `match` with `Result` +> +> That’s a lot of `match`! The `match` expression is very useful but also very +> much a primitive. In Chapter 13, you’ll learn about closures, which are used +> with many of the methods defined on `Result`. These methods can be more +> concise than using `match` when handling `Result` values in your code. +> +> For example, here’s another way to write the same logic as shown in Listing +> 9-5, this time using closures and the `unwrap_or_else` method: +> +> +> +> ```rust,ignore +> use std::fs::File; +> use std::io::ErrorKind; +> +> fn main() { +> let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt").unwrap_or_else(|error| { +> if error.kind() == ErrorKind::NotFound { +> File::create("hello.txt").unwrap_or_else(|error| { +> panic!("Problem creating the file: {error:?}"); +> }) +> } else { +> panic!("Problem opening the file: {error:?}"); +> } +> }); +> } +> ``` +> +> Although this code has the same behavior as Listing 9-5, it doesn’t contain +> any `match` expressions and is cleaner to read. Come back to this example +> after you’ve read Chapter 13, and look up the `unwrap_or_else` method in the +> standard library documentation. Many more of these methods can clean up huge +> nested `match` expressions when you’re dealing with errors. -#### Shortcuts for Panic on Error: unwrap and expect +#### Shortcuts for Panic on Error: `unwrap` and `expect` Using `match` works well enough, but it can be a bit verbose and doesn’t always communicate intent well. The `Result` type has many helper methods @@ -427,10 +438,15 @@ fn main() { If we run this code without a *hello.txt* file, we’ll see an error message from the `panic!` call that the `unwrap` method makes: + + ``` -thread 'main' panicked at 'called `Result::unwrap()` on an `Err` value: Os { -code: 2, kind: NotFound, message: "No such file or directory" }', -src/main.rs:4:49 +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:4:49: +called `Result::unwrap()` on an `Err` value: Os { code: 2, kind: NotFound, message: "No such file or directory" } ``` Similarly, the `expect` method lets us also choose the `panic!` error message. @@ -454,10 +470,15 @@ the `panic!` macro. The error message used by `expect` in its call to `panic!` will be the parameter that we pass to `expect`, rather than the default `panic!` message that `unwrap` uses. Here’s what it looks like: + + ``` -thread 'main' panicked at 'hello.txt should be included in this project: Os { -code: 2, kind: NotFound, message: "No such file or directory" }', -src/main.rs:5:10 +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:5:10: +hello.txt should be included in this project: Os { code: 2, kind: NotFound, message: "No such file or directory" } ``` In production-quality code, most Rustaceans choose `expect` rather than @@ -480,67 +501,72 @@ to the code that called the function. Filename: src/main.rs + + ``` use std::fs::File; use std::io::{self, Read}; -1 fn read_username_from_file() -> Result { - 2 let username_file_result = File::open("hello.txt"); +fn read_username_from_file() -> Result { + let username_file_result = File::open("hello.txt"); - 3 let mut username_file = match username_file_result { - 4 Ok(file) => file, - 5 Err(e) => return Err(e), + let mut username_file = match username_file_result { + Ok(file) => file, + Err(e) => return Err(e), }; - 6 let mut username = String::new(); + let mut username = String::new(); - 7 match username_file.read_to_string(&mut username) { - 8 Ok(_) => Ok(username), - 9 Err(e) => Err(e), + match username_file.read_to_string(&mut username) { + Ok(_) => Ok(username), + Err(e) => Err(e), } } ``` -Listing 9-6: A function that returns errors to the calling code using `match` +Listing 9-6: A function that returns errors to the +calling code using `match` This function can be written in a much shorter way, but we’re going to start by doing a lot of it manually in order to explore error handling; at the end, we’ll show the shorter way. Let’s look at the return type of the function -first: `Result` [1]. This means the function is returning a +first: `Result`. This means the function is returning a value of the type `Result`, where the generic parameter `T` has been filled in with the concrete type `String` and the generic type `E` has been filled in with the concrete type `io::Error`. If this function succeeds without any problems, the code that calls this function will receive an `Ok` value that holds a `String`—the `username` that -this function read from the file [8]. If this function encounters any problems, -the calling code will receive an `Err` value that holds an instance of -`io::Error` that contains more information about what the problems were. We -chose `io::Error` as the return type of this function because that happens to -be the type of the error value returned from both of the operations we’re -calling in this function’s body that might fail: the `File::open` function [2] -and the `read_to_string` method [7]. - -The body of the function starts by calling the `File::open` function [2]. Then -we handle the `Result` value with a `match` similar to the `match` in Listing -9-4. If `File::open` succeeds, the file handle in the pattern variable `file` -[4] becomes the value in the mutable variable `username_file` [3] and the -function continues. In the `Err` case, instead of calling `panic!`, we use the -`return` keyword to return early out of the function entirely and pass the -error value from `File::open`, now in the pattern variable `e`, back to the -calling code as this function’s error value [5]. +this function read from the file. If this function encounters any problems, the +calling code will receive an `Err` value that holds an instance of `io::Error` +that contains more information about what the problems were. We chose +`io::Error` as the return type of this function because that happens to be the +type of the error value returned from both of the operations we’re calling in +this function’s body that might fail: the `File::open` function and the +`read_to_string` method. + +The body of the function starts by calling the `File::open` function. Then we +handle the `Result` value with a `match` similar to the `match` in Listing 9-4. +If `File::open` succeeds, the file handle in the pattern variable `file` +becomes the value in the mutable variable `username_file` and the function +continues. In the `Err` case, instead of calling `panic!`, we use the `return` +keyword to return early out of the function entirely and pass the error value +from `File::open`, now in the pattern variable `e`, back to the calling code as +this function’s error value. So, if we have a file handle in `username_file`, the function then creates a -new `String` in variable `username` [6] and calls the `read_to_string` method -on the file handle in `username_file` to read the contents of the file into -`username` [7]. The `read_to_string` method also returns a `Result` because it +new `String` in variable `username` and calls the `read_to_string` method on +the file handle in `username_file` to read the contents of the file into +`username`. The `read_to_string` method also returns a `Result` because it might fail, even though `File::open` succeeded. So we need another `match` to handle that `Result`: if `read_to_string` succeeds, then our function has succeeded, and we return the username from the file that’s now in `username` wrapped in an `Ok`. If `read_to_string` fails, we return the error value in the same way that we returned the error value in the `match` that handled the return value of `File::open`. However, we don’t need to explicitly say -`return`, because this is the last expression in the function [9]. +`return`, because this is the last expression in the function. The code that calls this code will then handle getting either an `Ok` value that contains a username or an `Err` value that contains an `io::Error`. It’s @@ -554,7 +580,7 @@ it to handle appropriately. This pattern of propagating errors is so common in Rust that Rust provides the question mark operator `?` to make this easier. -#### A Shortcut for Propagating Errors: The ? Operator +#### A Shortcut for Propagating Errors: the `?` Operator Listing 9-7 shows an implementation of `read_username_from_file` that has the same functionality as in Listing 9-6, but this implementation uses the `?` @@ -562,6 +588,10 @@ operator. Filename: src/main.rs + + ``` use std::fs::File; use std::io::{self, Read}; @@ -574,8 +604,8 @@ fn read_username_from_file() -> Result { } ``` -Listing 9-7: A function that returns errors to the calling code using the `?` -operator +Listing 9-7: A function that returns errors to the +calling code using the `?` operator The `?` placed after a `Result` value is defined to work in almost the same way as the `match` expressions we defined to handle the `Result` values in Listing @@ -614,6 +644,10 @@ method calls immediately after the `?`, as shown in Listing 9-8. Filename: src/main.rs + + ``` use std::fs::File; use std::io::{self, Read}; @@ -627,7 +661,8 @@ fn read_username_from_file() -> Result { } ``` -Listing 9-8: Chaining method calls after the `?` operator +Listing 9-8: Chaining method calls after the `?` +operator We’ve moved the creation of the new `String` in `username` to the beginning of the function; that part hasn’t changed. Instead of creating a variable @@ -642,6 +677,10 @@ Listing 9-9 shows a way to make this even shorter using `fs::read_to_string`. Filename: src/main.rs + + ``` use std::fs; use std::io; @@ -651,8 +690,8 @@ fn read_username_from_file() -> Result { } ``` -Listing 9-9: Using `fs::read_to_string` instead of opening and then reading the -file +Listing 9-9: Using `fs::read_to_string` instead of +opening and then reading the file Reading a file into a string is a fairly common operation, so the standard library provides the convenient `fs::read_to_string` function that opens the @@ -661,7 +700,7 @@ into that `String`, and returns it. Of course, using `fs::read_to_string` doesn’t give us the opportunity to explain all the error handling, so we did it the longer way first. -#### Where the ? Operator Can Be Used +#### Where The `?` Operator Can Be Used The `?` operator can only be used in functions whose return type is compatible with the value the `?` is used on. This is because the `?` operator is defined @@ -685,8 +724,8 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 9-10: Attempting to use the `?` in the `main` function that returns -`()` won’t compile. +Listing 9-10: Attempting to use the `?` in the `main` +function that returns `()` won’t compile. This code opens a file, which might fail. The `?` operator follows the `Result` value returned by `File::open`, but this `main` function has the return type of @@ -694,19 +733,20 @@ value returned by `File::open`, but this `main` function has the return type of message: ``` -error[E0277]: the `?` operator can only be used in a function that returns -`Result` or `Option` (or another type that implements `FromResidual`) +$ cargo run + Compiling error-handling v0.1.0 (file:///projects/error-handling) +error[E0277]: the `?` operator can only be used in a function that returns `Result` or `Option` (or another type that implements `FromResidual`) --> src/main.rs:4:48 | -3 | / fn main() { -4 | | let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt")?; - | | ^ cannot use the `?` -operator in a function that returns `()` -5 | | } - | |_- this function should return `Result` or `Option` to accept `?` +3 | fn main() { + | --------- this function should return `Result` or `Option` to accept `?` +4 | let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt")?; + | ^ cannot use the `?` operator in a function that returns `()` | - = help: the trait `FromResidual>` is not -implemented for `()` + = help: the trait `FromResidual>` is not implemented for `()` + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. +error: could not compile `error-handling` (bin "error-handling") due to 1 previous error ``` This error points out that we’re only allowed to use the `?` operator in a @@ -735,7 +775,8 @@ fn last_char_of_first_line(text: &str) -> Option { } ``` -Listing 9-11: Using the `?` operator on an `Option` value +Listing 9-11: Using the `?` operator on an `Option` +value This function returns `Option` because it’s possible that there is a character there, but it’s also possible that there isn’t. This code takes the @@ -788,18 +829,18 @@ fn main() -> Result<(), Box> { } ``` -Listing 9-12: Changing `main` to return `Result<(), E>` allows the use of the -`?` operator on `Result` values. +Listing 9-12: Changing `main` to return `Result<(), E>` +allows the use of the `?` operator on `Result` values. -The `Box` type is a *trait object*, which we’ll talk about in “Using -Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types” on page XX. For now, -you can read `Box` to mean “any kind of error.” Using `?` on a -`Result` value in a `main` function with the error type `Box` is -allowed because it allows any `Err` value to be returned early. Even though the -body of this `main` function will only ever return errors of type -`std::io::Error`, by specifying `Box`, this signature will continue -to be correct even if more code that returns other errors is added to the body -of `main`. +The `Box` type is a *trait object*, which we’ll talk about in the +“Using Trait Objects that Allow for Values of Different +Types” section in Chapter 17. For now, you can +read `Box` to mean “any kind of error.” Using `?` on a `Result` +value in a `main` function with the error type `Box` is allowed +because it allows any `Err` value to be returned early. Even though the body of +this `main` function will only ever return errors of type `std::io::Error`, by +specifying `Box`, this signature will continue to be correct even if +more code that returns other errors is added to the body of `main`. When a `main` function returns a `Result<(), E>`, the executable will exit with a value of `0` if `main` returns `Ok(())` and will exit with a nonzero value if @@ -809,15 +850,16 @@ that error return some integer other than `0`. Rust also returns integers from executables to be compatible with this convention. The `main` function may return any types that implement the -`std::process::Termination` trait, which contains a function `report` that -returns an `ExitCode`. Consult the standard library documentation for more -information on implementing the `Termination` trait for your own types. +`std::process::Termination` trait, which contains +a function `report` that returns an `ExitCode`. Consult the standard library +documentation for more information on implementing the `Termination` trait for +your own types. Now that we’ve discussed the details of calling `panic!` or returning `Result`, let’s return to the topic of how to decide which is appropriate to use in which cases. -## To panic! or Not to panic! +## To `panic!` or Not to `panic!` So how do you decide when you should call `panic!` and when you should return `Result`? When code panics, there’s no way to recover. You could call `panic!` @@ -866,11 +908,11 @@ that you’ll never have an `Err` variant, it’s perfectly acceptable to call `Err` variant in the `expect` text. Here’s an example: ``` -use std::net::IpAddr; + use std::net::IpAddr; -let home: IpAddr = "127.0.0.1" - .parse() - .expect("Hardcoded IP address should be valid"); + let home: IpAddr = "127.0.0.1" + .parse() + .expect("Hardcoded IP address should be valid"); ``` We’re creating an `IpAddr` instance by parsing a hardcoded string. We can see @@ -895,12 +937,13 @@ contradictory values, or missing values are passed to your code—plus one or more of the following: * The bad state is something that is unexpected, as opposed to something that -will likely happen occasionally, like a user entering data in the wrong format. + will likely happen occasionally, like a user entering data in the wrong + format. * Your code after this point needs to rely on not being in this bad state, -rather than checking for the problem at every step. + rather than checking for the problem at every step. * There’s not a good way to encode this information in the types you use. We’ll -work through an example of what we mean in “Encoding States and Behavior as -Types” on page XX. + work through an example of what we mean in the “Encoding States and Behavior + as Types” section of Chapter 17. If someone calls your code and passes in values that don’t make sense, it’s best to return an error if you can so the user of the library can decide what @@ -965,22 +1008,22 @@ number being in range, like so: Filename: src/main.rs ``` -loop { - --snip-- + loop { + // --snip-- - let guess: i32 = match guess.trim().parse() { - Ok(num) => num, - Err(_) => continue, - }; + let guess: i32 = match guess.trim().parse() { + Ok(num) => num, + Err(_) => continue, + }; - if guess < 1 || guess > 100 { - println!("The secret number will be between 1 and 100."); - continue; - } + if guess < 1 || guess > 100 { + println!("The secret number will be between 1 and 100."); + continue; + } - match guess.cmp(&secret_number) { - --snip-- -} + match guess.cmp(&secret_number) { + // --snip-- + } ``` The `if` expression checks whether our value is out of range, tells the user @@ -1004,57 +1047,54 @@ receives a value between 1 and 100. Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -1 pub struct Guess { +pub struct Guess { value: i32, } impl Guess { - 2 pub fn new(value: i32) -> Guess { - 3 if value < 1 || value > 100 { - 4 panic!( - "Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {}.", - value - ); + pub fn new(value: i32) -> Guess { + if value < 1 || value > 100 { + panic!("Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {value}."); } - 5 Guess { value } + Guess { value } } - 6 pub fn value(&self) -> i32 { + pub fn value(&self) -> i32 { self.value } } ``` -Listing 9-13: A `Guess` type that will only continue with values between 1 and -100 +Listing 9-13: A `Guess` type that will only continue with +values between 1 and 100 First we define a struct named `Guess` that has a field named `value` that -holds an `i32` [1]. This is where the number will be stored. +holds an `i32`. This is where the number will be stored. Then we implement an associated function named `new` on `Guess` that creates -instances of `Guess` values [2]. The `new` function is defined to have one +instances of `Guess` values. The `new` function is defined to have one parameter named `value` of type `i32` and to return a `Guess`. The code in the -body of the `new` function tests `value` to make sure it’s between 1 and 100 -[3]. If `value` doesn’t pass this test, we make a `panic!` call [4], which will -alert the programmer who is writing the calling code that they have a bug they -need to fix, because creating a `Guess` with a `value` outside this range would +body of the `new` function tests `value` to make sure it’s between 1 and 100. +If `value` doesn’t pass this test, we make a `panic!` call, which will alert +the programmer who is writing the calling code that they have a bug they need +to fix, because creating a `Guess` with a `value` outside this range would violate the contract that `Guess::new` is relying on. The conditions in which `Guess::new` might panic should be discussed in its public-facing API documentation; we’ll cover documentation conventions indicating the possibility of a `panic!` in the API documentation that you create in Chapter 14. If `value` does pass the test, we create a new `Guess` with its `value` field set -to the `value` parameter and return the `Guess` [5]. +to the `value` parameter and return the `Guess`. Next, we implement a method named `value` that borrows `self`, doesn’t have any -other parameters, and returns an `i32` [6]. This kind of method is sometimes -called a *getter* because its purpose is to get some data from its fields and -return it. This public method is necessary because the `value` field of the -`Guess` struct is private. It’s important that the `value` field be private so -code using the `Guess` struct is not allowed to set `value` directly: code -outside the module *must* use the `Guess::new` function to create an instance -of `Guess`, thereby ensuring there’s no way for a `Guess` to have a `value` -that hasn’t been checked by the conditions in the `Guess::new` function. +other parameters, and returns an `i32`. This kind of method is sometimes called +a *getter* because its purpose is to get some data from its fields and return +it. This public method is necessary because the `value` field of the `Guess` +struct is private. It’s important that the `value` field be private so code +using the `Guess` struct is not allowed to set `value` directly: code outside +the module *must* use the `Guess::new` function to create an instance of +`Guess`, thereby ensuring there’s no way for a `Guess` to have a `value` that +hasn’t been checked by the conditions in the `Guess::new` function. A function that has a parameter or returns only numbers between 1 and 100 could then declare in its signature that it takes or returns a `Guess` rather than an @@ -1074,4 +1114,3 @@ situations will make your code more reliable in the face of inevitable problems. Now that you’ve seen useful ways that the standard library uses generics with the `Option` and `Result` enums, we’ll talk about how generics work and how you can use them in your code. - diff --git a/nostarch/chapter10.md b/nostarch/chapter10.md index bb8919d79..bc315d12c 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter10.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter10.md @@ -54,13 +54,13 @@ Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { - 1 let number_list = vec![34, 50, 25, 100, 65]; + let number_list = vec![34, 50, 25, 100, 65]; - 2 let mut largest = &number_list[0]; + let mut largest = &number_list[0]; - 3 for number in &number_list { - 4 if number > largest { - 5 largest = number; + for number in &number_list { + if number > largest { + largest = number; } } @@ -68,16 +68,17 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 10-1: Finding the largest number in a list of numbers +Listing 10-1: Finding the largest number in a list of +numbers -We store a list of integers in the variable `number_list` [1] and place a -reference to the first number in the list in a variable named `largest` [2]. We -then iterate through all the numbers in the list [3], and if the current number -is greater than the number stored in `largest` [4], we replace the reference in -that variable [5]. However, if the current number is less than or equal to the -largest number seen so far, the variable doesn’t change, and the code moves on -to the next number in the list. After considering all the numbers in the list, -`largest` should refer to the largest number, which in this case is 100. +We store a list of integers in the variable `number_list` and place a reference +to the first number in the list in a variable named `largest`. We then iterate +through all the numbers in the list, and if the current number is greater than +the number stored in `largest`, we replace the reference in that variable. +However, if the current number is less than or equal to the largest number seen +so far, the variable doesn’t change, and the code moves on to the next number +in the list. After considering all the numbers in the list, `largest` should +refer to the largest number, which in this case is 100. We’ve now been tasked with finding the largest number in two different lists of numbers. To do so, we can choose to duplicate the code in Listing 10-1 and use @@ -113,7 +114,8 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 10-2: Code to find the largest number in *two* lists of numbers +Listing 10-2: Code to find the largest number in *two* +lists of numbers Although this code works, duplicating code is tedious and error prone. We also have to remember to update the code in multiple places when we want to change @@ -157,18 +159,20 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 10-3: Abstracted code to find the largest number in two lists +Listing 10-3: Abstracted code to find the largest number +in two lists The `largest` function has a parameter called `list`, which represents any concrete slice of `i32` values we might pass into the function. As a result, -when we call the function, the code runs on the specific values that we pass in. +when we call the function, the code runs on the specific values that we pass +in. In summary, here are the steps we took to change the code from Listing 10-2 to Listing 10-3: 1. Identify duplicate code. 1. Extract the duplicate code into the body of the function, and specify the -inputs and return values of that code in the function signature. + inputs and return values of that code in the function signature. 1. Update the two instances of duplicated code to call the function instead. Next, we’ll use these same steps with generics to reduce code duplication. In @@ -237,8 +241,8 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 10-4: Two functions that differ only in their names and in the types in -their signatures +Listing 10-4: Two functions that differ only in their +names and in the types in their signatures The `largest_i32` function is the one we extracted in Listing 10-3 that finds the largest `i32` in a slice. The `largest_char` function finds the largest @@ -249,7 +253,7 @@ To parameterize the types in a new single function, we need to name the type parameter, just as we do for the value parameters to a function. You can use any identifier as a type parameter name. But we’ll use `T` because, by convention, type parameter names in Rust are short, often just one letter, and -Rust’s type-naming convention is CamelCase. Short for *type*, `T` is the +Rust’s type-naming convention is UpperCamelCase. Short for *type*, `T` is the default choice of most Rust programmers. When we use a parameter in the body of the function, we have to declare the @@ -301,12 +305,14 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 10-5: The `largest` function using generic type parameters; this -doesn’t compile yet +Listing 10-5: The `largest` function using generic type +parameters; this doesn’t compile yet If we compile this code right now, we’ll get this error: ``` +$ cargo run + Compiling chapter10 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/chapter10) error[E0369]: binary operation `>` cannot be applied to type `&T` --> src/main.rs:5:17 | @@ -319,6 +325,9 @@ help: consider restricting type parameter `T` | 1 | fn largest(list: &[T]) -> &T { | ++++++++++++++++++++++ + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0369`. +error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 1 previous error ``` The help text mentions `std::cmp::PartialOrd`, which is a *trait*, and we’re @@ -341,9 +350,9 @@ fields using the `<>` syntax. Listing 10-6 defines a `Point` struct to hold Filename: src/main.rs ``` -1 struct Point { - 2 x: T, - 3 y: T, +struct Point { + x: T, + y: T, } fn main() { @@ -352,13 +361,14 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 10-6: A `Point` struct that holds `x` and `y` values of type `T` +Listing 10-6: A `Point` struct that holds `x` and `y` +values of type `T` The syntax for using generics in struct definitions is similar to that used in function definitions. First we declare the name of the type parameter inside -angle brackets just after the name of the struct [1]. Then we use the generic +angle brackets just after the name of the struct. Then we use the generic type in the struct definition where we would otherwise specify concrete data -types [23]. +types. Note that because we’ve used only one generic type to define `Point`, this definition says that the `Point` struct is generic over some type `T`, and @@ -379,8 +389,8 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 10-7: The fields `x` and `y` must be the same type because both have -the same generic data type `T`. +Listing 10-7: The fields `x` and `y` must be the same +type because both have the same generic data type `T`. In this example, when we assign the integer value `5` to `x`, we let the compiler know that the generic type `T` will be an integer for this instance of @@ -388,12 +398,16 @@ compiler know that the generic type `T` will be an integer for this instance of same type as `x`, we’ll get a type mismatch error like this: ``` +$ cargo run + Compiling chapter10 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/chapter10) error[E0308]: mismatched types --> src/main.rs:7:38 | 7 | let wont_work = Point { x: 5, y: 4.0 }; - | ^^^ expected integer, found floating- -point number + | ^^^ expected integer, found floating-point number + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0308`. +error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 1 previous error ``` To define a `Point` struct where `x` and `y` are both generics but could have @@ -416,8 +430,8 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 10-8: A `Point` generic over two types so that `x` and `y` can be -values of different types +Listing 10-8: A `Point` generic over two types so +that `x` and `y` can be values of different types Now all the instances of `Point` shown are allowed! You can use as many generic type parameters in a definition as you want, but using more than a few makes @@ -495,8 +509,9 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 10-9: Implementing a method named `x` on the `Point` struct that -will return a reference to the `x` field of type `T` +Listing 10-9: Implementing a method named `x` on the +`Point` struct that will return a reference to the `x` field of type +`T` Here, we’ve defined a method named `x` on `Point` that returns a reference to the data in the field `x`. @@ -526,8 +541,8 @@ impl Point { } ``` -Listing 10-10: An `impl` block that only applies to a struct with a particular -concrete type for the generic type parameter `T` +Listing 10-10: An `impl` block that only applies to a +struct with a particular concrete type for the generic type parameter `T` This code means the type `Point` will have a `distance_from_origin` method; other instances of `Point` where `T` is not of type `f32` will not @@ -550,11 +565,8 @@ struct Point { y: Y1, } -1 impl Point { - 2 fn mixup( - self, - other: Point, - ) -> Point { +impl Point { + fn mixup(self, other: Point) -> Point { Point { x: self.x, y: other.y, @@ -563,32 +575,32 @@ struct Point { } fn main() { - 3 let p1 = Point { x: 5, y: 10.4 }; - 4 let p2 = Point { x: "Hello", y: 'c' }; + let p1 = Point { x: 5, y: 10.4 }; + let p2 = Point { x: "Hello", y: 'c' }; - 5 let p3 = p1.mixup(p2); + let p3 = p1.mixup(p2); - 6 println!("p3.x = {}, p3.y = {}", p3.x, p3.y); + println!("p3.x = {}, p3.y = {}", p3.x, p3.y); } ``` -Listing 10-11: A method that uses generic types different from its struct’s -definition +Listing 10-11: A method that uses generic types different +from its struct’s definition In `main`, we’ve defined a `Point` that has an `i32` for `x` (with value `5`) -and an `f64` for `y` (with value `10.4` [3]). The `p2` variable is a `Point` -struct that has a string slice for `x` (with value `"Hello"`) and a `char` for -`y` (with value `c` [4]). Calling `mixup` on `p1` with the argument `p2` gives -us `p3` [5], which will have an `i32` for `x` because `x` came from `p1`. The -`p3` variable will have a `char` for `y` because `y` came from `p2`. The -`println!` macro call [6] will print `p3.x = 5, p3.y = c`. +and an `f64` for `y` (with value `10.4`). The `p2` variable is a `Point` struct +that has a string slice for `x` (with value `"Hello"`) and a `char` for `y` +(with value `c`). Calling `mixup` on `p1` with the argument `p2` gives us `p3`, +which will have an `i32` for `x` because `x` came from `p1`. The `p3` variable +will have a `char` for `y` because `y` came from `p2`. The `println!` macro +call will print `p3.x = 5, p3.y = c`. The purpose of this example is to demonstrate a situation in which some generic parameters are declared with `impl` and some are declared with the method definition. Here, the generic parameters `X1` and `Y1` are declared after -`impl` [1] because they go with the struct definition. The generic parameters -`X2` and `Y2` are declared after `fn mixup` [2] because they’re only relevant -to the method. +`impl` because they go with the struct definition. The generic parameters `X2` +and `Y2` are declared after `fn mixup` because they’re only relevant to the +method. ### Performance of Code Using Generics @@ -656,7 +668,7 @@ can use *trait bounds* to specify that a generic type can be any type that has certain behavior. > Note: Traits are similar to a feature often called *interfaces* in other -languages, although with some differences. +> languages, although with some differences. ### Defining a Trait @@ -685,8 +697,8 @@ pub trait Summary { } ``` -Listing 10-12: A `Summary` trait that consists of the behavior provided by a -`summarize` method +Listing 10-12: A `Summary` trait that consists of the +behavior provided by a `summarize` method Here, we declare a trait using the `trait` keyword and then the trait’s name, which is `Summary` in this case. We also declare the trait as `pub` so that @@ -726,12 +738,7 @@ pub struct NewsArticle { impl Summary for NewsArticle { fn summarize(&self) -> String { - format!( - "{}, by {} ({})", - self.headline, - self.author, - self.location - ) + format!("{}, by {} ({})", self.headline, self.author, self.location) } } @@ -749,8 +756,8 @@ impl Summary for Tweet { } ``` -Listing 10-13: Implementing the `Summary` trait on the `NewsArticle` and -`Tweet` types +Listing 10-13: Implementing the `Summary` trait on the +`NewsArticle` and `Tweet` types Implementing a trait on a type is similar to implementing regular methods. The difference is that after `impl`, we put the trait name we want to implement, @@ -828,8 +835,8 @@ pub trait Summary { } ``` -Listing 10-14: Defining a `Summary` trait with a default implementation of the -`summarize` method +Listing 10-14: Defining a `Summary` trait with a default +implementation of the `summarize` method To use a default implementation to summarize instances of `NewsArticle`, we specify an empty `impl` block with `impl Summary for NewsArticle {}`. @@ -840,19 +847,17 @@ directly, we’ve provided a default implementation and specified that the `summarize` method on an instance of `NewsArticle`, like this: ``` -let article = NewsArticle { - headline: String::from( - "Penguins win the Stanley Cup Championship!" - ), - location: String::from("Pittsburgh, PA, USA"), - author: String::from("Iceburgh"), - content: String::from( - "The Pittsburgh Penguins once again are the best \ - hockey team in the NHL.", - ), -}; + let article = NewsArticle { + headline: String::from("Penguins win the Stanley Cup Championship!"), + location: String::from("Pittsburgh, PA, USA"), + author: String::from("Iceburgh"), + content: String::from( + "The Pittsburgh Penguins once again are the best \ + hockey team in the NHL.", + ), + }; -println!("New article available! {}", article.summarize()); + println!("New article available! {}", article.summarize()); ``` This code prints `New article available! (Read more...)`. @@ -875,10 +880,7 @@ pub trait Summary { fn summarize_author(&self) -> String; fn summarize(&self) -> String { - format!( - "(Read more from {}...)", - self.summarize_author() - ) + format!("(Read more from {}...)", self.summarize_author()) } } ``` @@ -902,16 +904,16 @@ definition of `summarize_author` that we’ve provided. Because we’ve implemen that looks like: ``` -let tweet = Tweet { - username: String::from("horse_ebooks"), - content: String::from( - "of course, as you probably already know, people", - ), - reply: false, - retweet: false, -}; + let tweet = Tweet { + username: String::from("horse_ebooks"), + content: String::from( + "of course, as you probably already know, people", + ), + reply: false, + retweet: false, + }; -println!("1 new tweet: {}", tweet.summarize()); + println!("1 new tweet: {}", tweet.summarize()); ``` This code prints `1 new tweet: (Read more from @horse_ebooks...)`. @@ -942,6 +944,9 @@ and pass in any instance of `NewsArticle` or `Tweet`. Code that calls the function with any other type, such as a `String` or an `i32`, won’t compile because those types don’t implement `Summary`. + + + #### Trait Bound Syntax The `impl Trait` syntax works for straightforward cases but is actually syntax @@ -979,7 +984,7 @@ The generic type `T` specified as the type of the `item1` and `item2` parameters constrains the function such that the concrete type of the value passed as an argument for `item1` and `item2` must be the same. -#### Specifying Multiple Trait Bounds with the + Syntax +#### Specifying Multiple Trait Bounds with the `+` Syntax We can also specify more than one trait bound. Say we wanted `notify` to use display formatting as well as `summarize` on `item`: we specify in the `notify` @@ -999,7 +1004,7 @@ pub fn notify(item: &T) { With the two trait bounds specified, the body of `notify` can call `summarize` and use `{}` to format `item`. -#### Clearer Trait Bounds with where Clauses +#### Clearer Trait Bounds with `where` Clauses Using too many trait bounds has its downsides. Each generic has its own trait bounds, so functions with multiple generic type parameters can contain lots of @@ -1089,20 +1094,21 @@ fn returns_summarizable(switch: bool) -> impl Summary { Returning either a `NewsArticle` or a `Tweet` isn’t allowed due to restrictions around how the `impl Trait` syntax is implemented in the compiler. We’ll cover -how to write a function with this behavior in “Using Trait Objects That Allow -for Values of Different Types” on page XX. +how to write a function with this behavior in the “Using Trait Objects That +Allow for Values of Different +Types” section of Chapter 17. ### Using Trait Bounds to Conditionally Implement Methods By using a trait bound with an `impl` block that uses generic type parameters, we can implement methods conditionally for types that implement the specified traits. For example, the type `Pair` in Listing 10-15 always implements the -`new` function to return a new instance of `Pair` (recall from “Defining -Methods” on page XX that `Self` is a type alias for the type of the `impl` -block, which in this case is `Pair`). But in the next `impl` block, -`Pair` only implements the `cmp_display` method if its inner type `T` -implements the `PartialOrd` trait that enables comparison *and* the `Display` -trait that enables printing. +`new` function to return a new instance of `Pair` (recall from the +“Defining Methods” section of Chapter 5 that `Self` +is a type alias for the type of the `impl` block, which in this case is +`Pair`). But in the next `impl` block, `Pair` only implements the +`cmp_display` method if its inner type `T` implements the `PartialOrd` trait +that enables comparison *and* the `Display` trait that enables printing. Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -1131,8 +1137,8 @@ impl Pair { } ``` -Listing 10-15: Conditionally implementing methods on a generic type depending -on trait bounds +Listing 10-15: Conditionally implementing methods on a +generic type depending on trait bounds We can also conditionally implement a trait for any type that implements another trait. Implementations of a trait on any type that satisfies the trait @@ -1143,7 +1149,7 @@ block in the standard library looks similar to this code: ``` impl ToString for T { - --snip-- + // --snip-- } ``` @@ -1177,18 +1183,19 @@ Lifetimes are another kind of generic that we’ve already been using. Rather than ensuring that a type has the behavior we want, lifetimes ensure that references are valid as long as we need them to be. -One detail we didn’t discuss in “References and Borrowing” on page XX is that -every reference in Rust has a *lifetime*, which is the scope for which that -reference is valid. Most of the time, lifetimes are implicit and inferred, just -like most of the time, types are inferred. We must annotate types only when -multiple types are possible. In a similar way, we must annotate lifetimes when -the lifetimes of references could be related in a few different ways. Rust +One detail we didn’t discuss in the “References and +Borrowing” section in Chapter 4 is +that every reference in Rust has a *lifetime*, which is the scope for which +that reference is valid. Most of the time, lifetimes are implicit and inferred, +just like most of the time, types are inferred. We must annotate types only +when multiple types are possible. In a similar way, we must annotate lifetimes +when the lifetimes of references could be related in a few different ways. Rust requires us to annotate the relationships using generic lifetime parameters to ensure the actual references used at runtime will definitely be valid. -Annotating lifetimes is not even a concept most other programming languages -have, so this is going to feel unfamiliar. Although we won’t cover lifetimes in -their entirety in this chapter, we’ll discuss common ways you might encounter +Annotating lifetimes is not a concept most other programming languages have, so +this is going to feel unfamiliar. Although we won’t cover lifetimes in their +entirety in this chapter, we’ll discuss common ways you might encounter lifetime syntax so you can get comfortable with the concept. ### Preventing Dangling References with Lifetimes @@ -1200,44 +1207,52 @@ scope. ``` fn main() { - 1 let r; + let r; { - 2 let x = 5; - 3 r = &x; - 4 } + let x = 5; + r = &x; + } - 5 println!("r: {r}"); + println!("r: {r}"); } ``` -Listing 10-16: An attempt to use a reference whose value has gone out of scope +Listing 10-16: An attempt to use a reference whose value +has gone out of scope > Note: The examples in Listing 10-16, 10-17, and 10-23 declare variables -without giving them an initial value, so the variable name exists in the outer -scope. At first glance, this might appear to be in conflict with Rust’s having -no null values. However, if we try to use a variable before giving it a value, -we’ll get a compile-time error, which shows that Rust indeed does not allow -null values. - -The outer scope declares a variable named `r` with no initial value [1], and -the inner scope declares a variable named `x` with the initial value of `5` -[2]. Inside the inner scope, we attempt to set the value of `r` as a reference -to `x` [3]. Then the inner scope ends [4], and we attempt to print the value in -`r` [5]. This code won’t compile because the value that `r` is referring to has -gone out of scope before we try to use it. Here is the error message: - -``` +> without giving them an initial value, so the variable name exists in the outer +> scope. At first glance, this might appear to be in conflict with Rust’s having +> no null values. However, if we try to use a variable before giving it a value, +> we’ll get a compile-time error, which shows that Rust indeed does not allow +> null values. + +The outer scope declares a variable named `r` with no initial value, and the +inner scope declares a variable named `x` with the initial value of `5`. Inside +the inner scope, we attempt to set the value of `r` as a reference to `x`. Then +the inner scope ends, and we attempt to print the value in `r`. This code won’t +compile because the value that `r` is referring to has gone out of scope before +we try to use it. Here is the error message: + +``` +$ cargo run + Compiling chapter10 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/chapter10) error[E0597]: `x` does not live long enough --> src/main.rs:6:13 | +5 | let x = 5; + | - binding `x` declared here 6 | r = &x; | ^^ borrowed value does not live long enough 7 | } | - `x` dropped here while still borrowed 8 | -9 | println!("r: {r}"); - | - borrow later used here +9 | println!("r: {}", r); + | - borrow later used here + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0597`. +error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 1 previous error ``` The error message says that the variable `x` “does not live long enough.” The @@ -1267,8 +1282,8 @@ fn main() { } // ---------+ ``` -Listing 10-17: Annotations of the lifetimes of `r` and `x`, named `'a` and -`'b`, respectively +Listing 10-17: Annotations of the lifetimes of `r` and +`x`, named `'a` and `'b`, respectively Here, we’ve annotated the lifetime of `r` with `'a` and the lifetime of `x` with `'b`. As you can see, the inner `'b` block is much smaller than the outer @@ -1291,14 +1306,14 @@ fn main() { } // ----------+ ``` -Listing 10-18: A valid reference because the data has a longer lifetime than -the reference +Listing 10-18: A valid reference because the data has a +longer lifetime than the reference Here, `x` has the lifetime `'b`, which in this case is larger than `'a`. This means `r` can reference `x` because Rust knows that the reference in `r` will always be valid while `x` is valid. -Now that you know where the lifetimes of references are and how Rust analyzes +Now that you know what the lifetimes of references are and how Rust analyzes lifetimes to ensure references will always be valid, let’s explore generic lifetimes of parameters and return values in the context of functions. @@ -1321,12 +1336,13 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 10-19: A `main` function that calls the `longest` function to find the -longer of two string slices +Listing 10-19: A `main` function that calls the `longest` +function to find the longer of two string slices Note that we want the function to take string slices, which are references, rather than strings, because we don’t want the `longest` function to take -ownership of its parameters. Refer to “String Slices as Parameters” on page XX +ownership of its parameters. Refer to the “String Slices as +Parameters” section in Chapter 4 for more discussion about why the parameters we use in Listing 10-19 are the ones we want. @@ -1345,24 +1361,29 @@ fn longest(x: &str, y: &str) -> &str { } ``` -Listing 10-20: An implementation of the `longest` function that returns the -longer of two string slices but does not yet compile +Listing 10-20: An implementation of the `longest` +function that returns the longer of two string slices but does not yet +compile Instead, we get the following error that talks about lifetimes: ``` +$ cargo run + Compiling chapter10 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/chapter10) error[E0106]: missing lifetime specifier --> src/main.rs:9:33 | 9 | fn longest(x: &str, y: &str) -> &str { | ---- ---- ^ expected named lifetime parameter | - = help: this function's return type contains a borrowed value, -but the signature does not say whether it is borrowed from `x` or `y` + = help: this function's return type contains a borrowed value, but the signature does not say whether it is borrowed from `x` or `y` help: consider introducing a named lifetime parameter | 9 | fn longest<'a>(x: &'a str, y: &'a str) -> &'a str { | ++++ ++ ++ ++ + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0106`. +error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 1 previous error ``` The help text reveals that the return type needs a generic lifetime parameter @@ -1435,8 +1456,9 @@ fn longest<'a>(x: &'a str, y: &'a str) -> &'a str { } ``` -Listing 10-21: The `longest` function definition specifying that all the -references in the signature must have the same lifetime `'a` +Listing 10-21: The `longest` function definition +specifying that all the references in the signature must have the same lifetime +`'a` This code should compile and produce the result we want when we use it with the `main` function in Listing 10-19. @@ -1494,8 +1516,8 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 10-22: Using the `longest` function with references to `String` values -that have different concrete lifetimes +Listing 10-22: Using the `longest` function with +references to `String` values that have different concrete lifetimes In this example, `string1` is valid until the end of the outer scope, `string2` is valid until the end of the inner scope, and `result` references something @@ -1525,21 +1547,28 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 10-23: Attempting to use `result` after `string2` has gone out of scope +Listing 10-23: Attempting to use `result` after `string2` +has gone out of scope When we try to compile this code, we get this error: ``` +$ cargo run + Compiling chapter10 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/chapter10) error[E0597]: `string2` does not live long enough --> src/main.rs:6:44 | +5 | let string2 = String::from("xyz"); + | ------- binding `string2` declared here 6 | result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2.as_str()); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ borrowed value -does not live long enough + | ^^^^^^^ borrowed value does not live long enough 7 | } | - `string2` dropped here while still borrowed 8 | println!("The longest string is {result}"); | ------ borrow later used here + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0597`. +error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 1 previous error ``` The error shows that for `result` to be valid for the `println!` statement, @@ -1604,12 +1633,19 @@ lifetime is not related to the lifetime of the parameters at all. Here is the error message we get: ``` -error[E0515]: cannot return reference to local variable `result` +$ cargo run + Compiling chapter10 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/chapter10) +error[E0515]: cannot return value referencing local variable `result` --> src/main.rs:11:5 | 11 | result.as_str() - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ returns a reference to data owned by the -current function + | ------^^^^^^^^^ + | | + | returns a value referencing data owned by the current function + | `result` is borrowed here + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0515`. +error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 1 previous error ``` The problem is that `result` goes out of scope and gets cleaned up at the end @@ -1635,39 +1671,35 @@ on every reference in the struct’s definition. Listing 10-24 has a struct name Filename: src/main.rs ``` -1 struct ImportantExcerpt<'a> { - 2 part: &'a str, +struct ImportantExcerpt<'a> { + part: &'a str, } fn main() { - 3 let novel = String::from( - "Call me Ishmael. Some years ago..." - ); - 4 let first_sentence = novel - .split('.') - .next() - .expect("Could not find a '.'"); - 5 let i = ImportantExcerpt { + let novel = String::from("Call me Ishmael. Some years ago..."); + let first_sentence = novel.split('.').next().expect("Could not find a '.'"); + let i = ImportantExcerpt { part: first_sentence, }; } ``` -Listing 10-24: A struct that holds a reference, requiring a lifetime annotation +Listing 10-24: A struct that holds a reference, requiring +a lifetime annotation This struct has the single field `part` that holds a string slice, which is a -reference [2]. As with generic data types, we declare the name of the generic +reference. As with generic data types, we declare the name of the generic lifetime parameter inside angle brackets after the name of the struct so we can -use the lifetime parameter in the body of the struct definition [1]. This +use the lifetime parameter in the body of the struct definition. This annotation means an instance of `ImportantExcerpt` can’t outlive the reference it holds in its `part` field. The `main` function here creates an instance of the `ImportantExcerpt` struct -[5] that holds a reference to the first sentence of the `String` [4] owned by -the variable `novel` [3]. The data in `novel` exists before the -`ImportantExcerpt` instance is created. In addition, `novel` doesn’t go out of -scope until after the `ImportantExcerpt` goes out of scope, so the reference in -the `ImportantExcerpt` instance is valid. +that holds a reference to the first sentence of the `String` owned by the +variable `novel`. The data in `novel` exists before the `ImportantExcerpt` +instance is created. In addition, `novel` doesn’t go out of scope until after +the `ImportantExcerpt` goes out of scope, so the reference in the +`ImportantExcerpt` instance is valid. ### Lifetime Elision @@ -1692,8 +1724,9 @@ fn first_word(s: &str) -> &str { } ``` -Listing 10-25: A function we defined in Listing 4-9 that compiled without -lifetime annotations, even though the parameter and return type are references +Listing 10-25: A function we defined in Listing 4-9 that +compiled without lifetime annotations, even though the parameter and return +type are references The reason this function compiles without lifetime annotations is historical: in early versions (pre-1.0) of Rust, this code wouldn’t have compiled because @@ -1924,7 +1957,5 @@ Believe it or not, there is much more to learn on the topics we discussed in this chapter: Chapter 17 discusses trait objects, which are another way to use traits. There are also more complex scenarios involving lifetime annotations that you will only need in very advanced scenarios; for those, you should read -the Rust Reference at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/trait-bounds.html*. -But next, you’ll learn how to write tests in Rust so you can make sure your -code is working the way it should. - +the Rust Reference at *../reference/index.html*. But next, you’ll learn how to write tests in +Rust so you can make sure your code is working the way it should. diff --git a/nostarch/chapter11.md b/nostarch/chapter11.md index cf909d70c..d44a50149 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter11.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter11.md @@ -85,86 +85,100 @@ $ cd adder The contents of the *src/lib.rs* file in your `adder` library should look like Listing 11-1. + Filename: src/lib.rs + + ``` +pub fn add(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right +} + #[cfg(test)] mod tests { - 1 #[test] + use super::*; + + #[test] fn it_works() { - let result = 2 + 2; - 2 assert_eq!(result, 4); + let result = add(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } ``` -Listing 11-1: The test module and function generated automatically by `cargo -new` +Listing 11-1: The code generated automatically by cargo new -For now, let’s ignore the top two lines and focus on the function. Note the -`#[test]` annotation [1]: this attribute indicates this is a test function, so -the test runner knows to treat this function as a test. We might also have -non-test functions in the `tests` module to help set up common scenarios or -perform common operations, so we always need to indicate which functions are -tests. +For now, let’s focus solely on the `it_works` function. Note the `#[test]` +annotation: this attribute indicates this is a test function, so the test +runner knows to treat this function as a test. We might also have non-test +functions in the `tests` module to help set up common scenarios or perform +common operations, so we always need to indicate which functions are tests. -The example function body uses the `assert_eq!` macro [2] to assert that -`result`, which contains the result of adding 2 and 2, equals 4. This assertion -serves as an example of the format for a typical test. Let’s run it to see that -this test passes. +The example function body uses the `assert_eq!` macro to assert that `result`, +which contains the result of adding 2 and 2, equals 4. This assertion serves as +an example of the format for a typical test. Let’s run it to see that this test +passes. The `cargo test` command runs all tests in our project, as shown in Listing 11-2. + ``` $ cargo test Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.57s - Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder- -92948b65e88960b4) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.57s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) -1 running 1 test -2 test tests::it_works ... ok +running 1 test +test tests::it_works ... ok -3 test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s - 4 Doc-tests adder + Doc-tests adder running 0 tests -test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` Listing 11-2: The output from running the automatically generated test -Cargo compiled and ran the test. We see the line `running 1 test` [1]. The next -line shows the name of the generated test function, called `it_works`, and that -the result of running that test is `ok` [2]. The overall summary `test result: -ok.` [3] means that all the tests passed, and the portion that reads `1 passed; -0 failed` totals the number of tests that passed or failed. +Cargo compiled and ran the test. We see the line `running 1 test`. The next +line shows the name of the generated test function, called `tests::it_works`, +and that the result of running that test is `ok`. The overall summary `test result: ok.` means that all the tests passed, and the portion that reads `1 passed; 0 failed` totals the number of tests that passed or failed. It’s possible to mark a test as ignored so it doesn’t run in a particular -instance; we’ll cover that in “Ignoring Some Tests Unless Specifically -Requested” on page XX. Because we haven’t done that here, the summary shows `0 -ignored`. We can also pass an argument to the `cargo test` command to run only -tests whose name matches a string; this is called *filtering* and we’ll cover -it in “Running a Subset of Tests by Name” on page XX. Here we haven’t filtered -the tests being run, so the end of the summary shows `0 filtered out`. +instance; we’ll cover that in the “Ignoring Some Tests Unless Specifically +Requested” section later in this chapter. Because we +haven’t done that here, the summary shows `0 ignored`. The `0 measured` statistic is for benchmark tests that measure performance. Benchmark tests are, as of this writing, only available in nightly Rust. See -the documentation about benchmark tests at -*https://doc.rust-lang.org/unstable-book/library-features/test.html* to learn -more. +the documentation about benchmark tests at *../unstable-book/library-features/test.html* to learn more. + +We can pass an argument to the `cargo test` command to run only tests whose +name matches a string; this is called *filtering* and we’ll cover that in the +“Running a Subset of Tests by Name” section. Here we +haven’t filtered the tests being run, so the end of the summary shows `0 filtered out`. -The next part of the test output starting at `Doc-tests adder` [4] is for the +The next part of the test output starting at `Doc-tests adder` is for the results of any documentation tests. We don’t have any documentation tests yet, but Rust can compile any code examples that appear in our API documentation. This feature helps keep your docs and your code in sync! We’ll discuss how to -write documentation tests in “Documentation Comments as Tests” on page XX. For -now, we’ll ignore the `Doc-tests` output. +write documentation tests in the “Documentation Comments as +Tests” section of Chapter 14. For now, we’ll +ignore the `Doc-tests` output. Let’s start to customize the test to our own needs. First, change the name of the `it_works` function to a different name, such as `exploration`, like so: @@ -172,11 +186,17 @@ the `it_works` function to a different name, such as `exploration`, like so: Filename: src/lib.rs ``` +pub fn add(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right +} + #[cfg(test)] mod tests { + use super::*; + #[test] fn exploration() { - let result = 2 + 2; + let result = add(2, 2); assert_eq!(result, 4); } } @@ -186,11 +206,22 @@ Then run `cargo test` again. The output now shows `exploration` instead of `it_works`: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.59s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + running 1 test test tests::exploration ... ok -test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests adder + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` Now we’ll add another test, but this time we’ll make a test that fails! Tests @@ -200,14 +231,22 @@ marked as failed. In Chapter 9, we talked about how the simplest way to panic is to call the `panic!` macro. Enter the new test as a function named `another`, so your *src/lib.rs* file looks like Listing 11-3. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` +pub fn add(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right +} + #[cfg(test)] mod tests { + use super::*; + #[test] fn exploration() { - assert_eq!(2 + 2, 4); + let result = add(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } #[test] @@ -217,52 +256,62 @@ mod tests { } ``` -Listing 11-3: Adding a second test that will fail because we call the `panic!` -macro +Listing 11-3: Adding a second test that will fail because we call the panic! macro Run the tests again using `cargo test`. The output should look like Listing 11-4, which shows that our `exploration` test passed and `another` failed. + ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.72s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + running 2 tests +test tests::another ... FAILED test tests::exploration ... ok -1 test tests::another ... FAILED -2 failures: +failures: ---- tests::another stdout ---- -thread 'main' panicked at 'Make this test fail', src/lib.rs:10:9 -note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display -a backtrace +thread 'tests::another' panicked at src/lib.rs:17:9: +Make this test fail +note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace -3 failures: + +failures: tests::another -4 test result: FAILED. 1 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: FAILED. 1 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s -error: test failed, to rerun pass '--lib' +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` Listing 11-4: Test results when one test passes and one test fails -Instead of `ok`, the line `test tests::another` shows `FAILED` [1]. Two new -sections appear between the individual results and the summary: the first [2] + + +Instead of `ok`, the line `test tests::another` shows `FAILED`. Two new +sections appear between the individual results and the summary: the first displays the detailed reason for each test failure. In this case, we get the details that `another` failed because it `panicked at 'Make this test fail'` on -line 10 in the *src/lib.rs* file. The next section [3] lists just the names of -all the failing tests, which is useful when there are lots of tests and lots of +line 17 in the *src/lib.rs* file. The next section lists just the names of all +the failing tests, which is useful when there are lots of tests and lots of detailed failing test output. We can use the name of a failing test to run just that test to more easily debug it; we’ll talk more about ways to run tests in -“Controlling How Tests Are Run” on page XX. +the “Controlling How Tests Are Run” section. -The summary line displays at the end [4]: overall, our test result is `FAILED`. -We had one test pass and one test fail. +The summary line displays at the end: overall, our test result is `FAILED`. We +had one test pass and one test fail. Now that you’ve seen what the test results look like in different scenarios, let’s look at some macros other than `panic!` that are useful in tests. -### Checking Results with the assert! Macro +### Checking Results with the `assert!` Macro The `assert!` macro, provided by the standard library, is useful when you want to ensure that some condition in a test evaluates to `true`. We give the @@ -271,9 +320,10 @@ to ensure that some condition in a test evaluates to `true`. We give the `assert!` macro calls `panic!` to cause the test to fail. Using the `assert!` macro helps us check that our code is functioning in the way we intend. -In Listing 5-15, we used a `Rectangle` struct and a `can_hold` method, which -are repeated here in Listing 11-5. Let’s put this code in the *src/lib.rs* -file, then write some tests for it using the `assert!` macro. +In Chapter 5, Listing 5-15, we used a `Rectangle` struct and a `can_hold` +method, which are repeated here in Listing 11-5. Let’s put this code in the +*src/lib.rs* file, then write some tests for it using the `assert!` macro. + Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -291,8 +341,7 @@ impl Rectangle { } ``` -Listing 11-5: Using the `Rectangle` struct and its `can_hold` method from -Chapter 5 +Listing 11-5: The Rectangle struct and its can_hold method from Chapter 5 The `can_hold` method returns a Boolean, which means it’s a perfect use case for the `assert!` macro. In Listing 11-6, we write a test that exercises the @@ -300,16 +349,17 @@ for the `assert!` macro. In Listing 11-6, we write a test that exercises the a height of 7 and asserting that it can hold another `Rectangle` instance that has a width of 5 and a height of 1. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` #[cfg(test)] mod tests { - 1 use super::*; + use super::*; #[test] - 2 fn larger_can_hold_smaller() { - 3 let larger = Rectangle { + fn larger_can_hold_smaller() { + let larger = Rectangle { width: 8, height: 7, }; @@ -318,34 +368,44 @@ mod tests { height: 1, }; - 4 assert!(larger.can_hold(&smaller)); + assert!(larger.can_hold(&smaller)); } } ``` -Listing 11-6: A test for `can_hold` that checks whether a larger rectangle can -indeed hold a smaller rectangle +Listing 11-6: A test for can_hold that checks whether a larger rectangle can indeed hold a smaller rectangle -Note that we’ve added a new line inside the `tests` module: `use super::*;` -[1]. The `tests` module is a regular module that follows the usual visibility -rules we covered in “Paths for Referring to an Item in the Module Tree” on page -XX. Because the `tests` module is an inner module, we need to bring the code -under test in the outer module into the scope of the inner module. We use a -glob here, so anything we define in the outer module is available to this +Note the `use super::*;` line inside the `tests` module. The `tests` module is +a regular module that follows the usual visibility rules we covered in Chapter +7 in the “Paths for Referring to an Item in the Module +Tree” +section. Because the `tests` module is an inner module, we need to bring the +code under test in the outer module into the scope of the inner module. We use +a glob here, so anything we define in the outer module is available to this `tests` module. -We’ve named our test `larger_can_hold_smaller` [2], and we’ve created the two -`Rectangle` instances that we need [3]. Then we called the `assert!` macro and -passed it the result of calling `larger.can_hold(&smaller)` [4]. This -expression is supposed to return `true`, so our test should pass. Let’s find -out! +We’ve named our test `larger_can_hold_smaller`, and we’ve created the two +`Rectangle` instances that we need. Then we called the `assert!` macro and +passed it the result of calling `larger.can_hold(&smaller)`. This expression is +supposed to return `true`, so our test should pass. Let’s find out! ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling rectangle v0.1.0 (file:///projects/rectangle) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.66s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/rectangle-6584c4561e48942e) + running 1 test test tests::larger_can_hold_smaller ... ok -test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests rectangle + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` It does pass! Let’s add another test, this time asserting that a smaller @@ -360,7 +420,7 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn larger_can_hold_smaller() { - --snip-- + // --snip-- } #[test] @@ -384,12 +444,23 @@ we need to negate that result before we pass it to the `assert!` macro. As a result, our test will pass if `can_hold` returns `false`: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling rectangle v0.1.0 (file:///projects/rectangle) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.66s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/rectangle-6584c4561e48942e) + running 2 tests test tests::larger_can_hold_smaller ... ok test tests::smaller_cannot_hold_larger ... ok -test result: ok. 2 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 2 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests rectangle + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` Two tests that pass! Now let’s see what happens to our test results when we @@ -398,8 +469,7 @@ method by replacing the greater-than sign with a less-than sign when it compares the widths: ``` ---snip-- - +// --snip-- impl Rectangle { fn can_hold(&self, other: &Rectangle) -> bool { self.width < other.width && self.height > other.height @@ -410,31 +480,36 @@ impl Rectangle { Running the tests now produces the following: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling rectangle v0.1.0 (file:///projects/rectangle) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.66s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/rectangle-6584c4561e48942e) + running 2 tests -test tests::smaller_cannot_hold_larger ... ok test tests::larger_can_hold_smaller ... FAILED +test tests::smaller_cannot_hold_larger ... ok failures: ---- tests::larger_can_hold_smaller stdout ---- -thread 'main' panicked at 'assertion failed: -larger.can_hold(&smaller)', src/lib.rs:28:9 -note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display -a backtrace +thread 'tests::larger_can_hold_smaller' panicked at src/lib.rs:28:9: +assertion failed: larger.can_hold(&smaller) +note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace failures: tests::larger_can_hold_smaller -test result: FAILED. 1 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: FAILED. 1 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` Our tests caught the bug! Because `larger.width` is `8` and `smaller.width` is `5`, the comparison of the widths in `can_hold` now returns `false`: 8 is not less than 5. -### Testing Equality with the assert_eq! and assert_ne! Macros +### Testing Equality with the `assert_eq!` and `assert_ne!` Macros A common way to verify functionality is to test for equality between the result of the code under test and the value you expect the code to return. You could @@ -450,10 +525,11 @@ expression, without printing the values that led to the `false` value. In Listing 11-7, we write a function named `add_two` that adds `2` to its parameter, then we test this function using the `assert_eq!` macro. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { a + 2 } @@ -463,32 +539,45 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn it_adds_two() { - assert_eq!(4, add_two(2)); + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } ``` -Listing 11-7: Testing the function `add_two` using the `assert_eq!` macro +Listing 11-7: Testing the function add_two using the assert_eq! macro Let’s check that it passes! ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.58s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + running 1 test test tests::it_adds_two ... ok -test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests adder + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` -We pass `4` as the argument to `assert_eq!`, which is equal to the result of -calling `add_two(2)`. The line for this test is `test tests::it_adds_two ... -ok`, and the `ok` text indicates that our test passed! +We create a variable named `result` that holds the result of calling +`add_two(2)`. Then we pass `result` and `4` as the arguments to `assert_eq!`. +The output line for this test is `test tests::it_adds_two ... ok`, and the `ok` +text indicates that our test passed! Let’s introduce a bug into our code to see what `assert_eq!` looks like when it fails. Change the implementation of the `add_two` function to instead add `3`: ``` -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { a + 3 } ``` @@ -496,39 +585,46 @@ pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { Run the tests again: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + running 1 test test tests::it_adds_two ... FAILED failures: ---- tests::it_adds_two stdout ---- -1 thread 'main' panicked at 'assertion failed: `(left == right)` -2 left: `4`, -3 right: `5`', src/lib.rs:11:9 -note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display -a backtrace +thread 'tests::it_adds_two' panicked at src/lib.rs:12:9: +assertion `left == right` failed + left: 5 + right: 4 +note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace + failures: tests::it_adds_two -test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` Our test caught the bug! The `it_adds_two` test failed, and the message tells -us that the assertion that failed was `assertion failed: `(left == right)`` [1] -and what the `left` [2] and `right` [3] values are. This message helps us start -debugging: the `left` argument was `4` but the `right` argument, where we had -`add_two(2)`, was `5`. You can imagine that this would be especially helpful -when we have a lot of tests going on. +us ``assertion `left == right` failed`` and what the `left` and `right` values +are. This message helps us start debugging: the `left` argument, where we had +the result of calling `add_two(2)`, was `5` but the `right` argument was `4`. +You can imagine that this would be especially helpful when we have a lot of +tests going on. Note that in some languages and test frameworks, the parameters to equality assertion functions are called `expected` and `actual`, and the order in which we specify the arguments matters. However, in Rust, they’re called `left` and `right`, and the order in which we specify the value we expect and the value the code produces doesn’t matter. We could write the assertion in this test as -`assert_eq!(add_two(2), 4)`, which would result in the same failure message -that displays `assertion failed: `(left == right)``. +`assert_eq!(4, result)`, which would produce the same failure message +that displays `` assertion failed: `(left == right)` ``. The `assert_ne!` macro will pass if the two values we give it are not equal and fail if they’re equal. This macro is most useful for cases when we’re not sure @@ -546,20 +642,23 @@ the standard library types implement these traits. For structs and enums that you define yourself, you’ll need to implement `PartialEq` to assert equality of those types. You’ll also need to implement `Debug` to print the values when the assertion fails. Because both traits are derivable traits, as mentioned in -Listing 5-12, this is usually as straightforward as adding the +Listing 5-12 in Chapter 5, this is usually as straightforward as adding the `#[derive(PartialEq, Debug)]` annotation to your struct or enum definition. See -Appendix C for more details about these and other derivable traits. +Appendix C, “Derivable Traits,” for more +details about these and other derivable traits. ### Adding Custom Failure Messages You can also add a custom message to be printed with the failure message as optional arguments to the `assert!`, `assert_eq!`, and `assert_ne!` macros. Any arguments specified after the required arguments are passed along to the -`format!` macro (discussed in “Concatenation with the + Operator or the format! -Macro” on page XX), so you can pass a format string that contains `{}` -placeholders and values to go in those placeholders. Custom messages are useful -for documenting what an assertion means; when a test fails, you’ll have a -better idea of what the problem is with the code. +`format!` macro (discussed in Chapter 8 in the “Concatenation with the `+` +Operator or the `format!` +Macro” +section), so you can pass a format string that contains `{}` placeholders and +values to go in those placeholders. Custom messages are useful for documenting +what an assertion means; when a test fails, you’ll have a better idea of what +the problem is with the code. For example, let’s say we have a function that greets people by name and we want to test that the name we pass into the function appears in the output: @@ -602,20 +701,28 @@ pub fn greeting(name: &str) -> String { Running this test produces the following: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling greeter v0.1.0 (file:///projects/greeter) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.91s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/greeter-170b942eb5bf5e3a) + running 1 test test tests::greeting_contains_name ... FAILED failures: ---- tests::greeting_contains_name stdout ---- -thread 'main' panicked at 'assertion failed: -result.contains(\"Carol\")', src/lib.rs:12:9 -note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display -a backtrace +thread 'tests::greeting_contains_name' panicked at src/lib.rs:12:9: +assertion failed: result.contains("Carol") +note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace failures: tests::greeting_contains_name + +test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` This result just indicates that the assertion failed and which line the @@ -625,37 +732,54 @@ string with a placeholder filled in with the actual value we got from the `greeting` function: ``` -#[test] -fn greeting_contains_name() { - let result = greeting("Carol"); - assert!( - result.contains("Carol"), - "Greeting did not contain name, value was `{result}`" - ); -} + #[test] + fn greeting_contains_name() { + let result = greeting("Carol"); + assert!( + result.contains("Carol"), + "Greeting did not contain name, value was `{result}`" + ); + } ``` Now when we run the test, we’ll get a more informative error message: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling greeter v0.1.0 (file:///projects/greeter) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.93s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/greeter-170b942eb5bf5e3a) + +running 1 test +test tests::greeting_contains_name ... FAILED + +failures: + ---- tests::greeting_contains_name stdout ---- -thread 'main' panicked at 'Greeting did not contain name, value -was `Hello!`', src/lib.rs:12:9 -note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display -a backtrace +thread 'tests::greeting_contains_name' panicked at src/lib.rs:12:9: +Greeting did not contain name, value was `Hello!` +note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace + + +failures: + tests::greeting_contains_name + +test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` We can see the value we actually got in the test output, which would help us debug what happened instead of what we were expecting to happen. -### Checking for Panics with should_panic +### Checking for Panics with `should_panic` In addition to checking return values, it’s important to check that our code handles error conditions as we expect. For example, consider the `Guess` type -that we created in Listing 9-13. Other code that uses `Guess` depends on the -guarantee that `Guess` instances will contain only values between 1 and 100. We -can write a test that ensures that attempting to create a `Guess` instance with -a value outside that range panics. +that we created in Chapter 9, Listing 9-13. Other code that uses `Guess` +depends on the guarantee that `Guess` instances will contain only values +between 1 and 100. We can write a test that ensures that attempting to create a +`Guess` instance with a value outside that range panics. We do this by adding the attribute `should_panic` to our test function. The test passes if the code inside the function panics; the test fails if the code @@ -664,8 +788,10 @@ inside the function doesn’t panic. Listing 11-8 shows a test that checks that the error conditions of `Guess::new` happen when we expect them to. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + ``` -// src/lib.rs pub struct Guess { value: i32, } @@ -673,10 +799,7 @@ pub struct Guess { impl Guess { pub fn new(value: i32) -> Guess { if value < 1 || value > 100 { - panic!( - "Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {}.", - value - ); + panic!("Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {value}."); } Guess { value } @@ -695,34 +818,40 @@ mod tests { } ``` -Listing 11-8: Testing that a condition will cause a panic! +Listing 11-8: Testing that a condition will cause a panic! We place the `#[should_panic]` attribute after the `#[test]` attribute and before the test function it applies to. Let’s look at the result when this test passes: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.58s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/guessing_game-57d70c3acb738f4d) + running 1 test test tests::greater_than_100 - should panic ... ok -test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests guessing_game + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` Looks good! Now let’s introduce a bug in our code by removing the condition that the `new` function will panic if the value is greater than 100: ``` -// src/lib.rs ---snip-- - +// --snip-- impl Guess { pub fn new(value: i32) -> Guess { if value < 1 { - panic!( - "Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {}.", - value - ); + panic!("Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {value}."); } Guess { value } @@ -733,6 +862,11 @@ impl Guess { When we run the test in Listing 11-8, it will fail: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.62s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/guessing_game-57d70c3acb738f4d) + running 1 test test tests::greater_than_100 - should panic ... FAILED @@ -744,8 +878,9 @@ note: test did not panic as expected failures: tests::greater_than_100 -test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` We don’t get a very helpful message in this case, but when we look at the test @@ -761,21 +896,21 @@ consider the modified code for `Guess` in Listing 11-9 where the `new` function panics with different messages depending on whether the value is too small or too large. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + ``` -// src/lib.rs ---snip-- +// --snip-- impl Guess { pub fn new(value: i32) -> Guess { if value < 1 { panic!( - "Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got {}.", - value + "Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got {value}." ); } else if value > 100 { panic!( - "Guess value must be less than or equal to 100, got {}.", - value + "Guess value must be less than or equal to 100, got {value}." ); } @@ -795,14 +930,12 @@ mod tests { } ``` -Listing 11-9: Testing for a `panic!` with a panic message containing a -specified substring +Listing 11-9: Testing for a panic! with a panic message containing a specified substring This test will pass because the value we put in the `should_panic` attribute’s `expected` parameter is a substring of the message that the `Guess::new` function panics with. We could have specified the entire panic message that we -expect, which in this case would be `Guess value must be less than or equal to -100, got 200`. What you choose to specify depends on how much of the panic +expect, which in this case would be `Guess value must be less than or equal to 100, got 200`. What you choose to specify depends on how much of the panic message is unique or dynamic and how precise you want your test to be. In this case, a substring of the panic message is enough to ensure that the code in the test function executes the `else if value > 100` case. @@ -812,72 +945,66 @@ fails, let’s again introduce a bug into our code by swapping the bodies of the `if value < 1` and the `else if value > 100` blocks: ``` -// src/lib.rs ---snip-- -if value < 1 { - panic!( - "Guess value must be less than or equal to 100, got {}.", - value - ); -} else if value > 100 { - panic!( - "Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got {}.", - value - ); -} ---snip-- + if value < 1 { + panic!( + "Guess value must be less than or equal to 100, got {value}." + ); + } else if value > 100 { + panic!( + "Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got {value}." + ); + } ``` This time when we run the `should_panic` test, it will fail: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.66s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/guessing_game-57d70c3acb738f4d) + running 1 test test tests::greater_than_100 - should panic ... FAILED failures: ---- tests::greater_than_100 stdout ---- -thread 'main' panicked at 'Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got -200.', src/lib.rs:13:13 +thread 'tests::greater_than_100' panicked at src/lib.rs:12:13: +Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got 200. note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace note: panic did not contain expected string - panic message: `"Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got -200."`, + panic message: `"Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got 200."`, expected substring: `"less than or equal to 100"` failures: tests::greater_than_100 -test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; -finished in 0.00s +test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` The failure message indicates that this test did indeed panic as we expected, -but the panic message did not include the expected string `'Guess value must be -less than or equal to 100'`. The panic message that we did get in this case was -`Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got 200`. Now we can start -figuring out where our bug is! +but the panic message did not include the expected string `less than or equal to 100`. The panic message that we did get in this case was `Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got 200.` Now we can start figuring out where +our bug is! -### Using Result in Tests +### Using `Result` in Tests Our tests so far all panic when they fail. We can also write tests that use -`Result`! Here’s the test from Listing 11-1, rewritten to use `Result` and return an `Err` instead of panicking: - -Filename: src/lib.rs +`Result`! Here’s the test from Listing 11-1, rewritten to use `Result` and return an `Err` instead of panicking: ``` -#[cfg(test)] -mod tests { #[test] fn it_works() -> Result<(), String> { - if 2 + 2 == 4 { + let result = add(2, 2); + + if result == 4 { Ok(()) } else { Err(String::from("two plus two does not equal four")) } } -} ``` The `it_works` function now has the `Result<(), String>` return type. In the @@ -889,14 +1016,12 @@ Writing tests so they return a `Result` enables you to use the question mark operator in the body of tests, which can be a convenient way to write tests that should fail if any operation within them returns an `Err` variant. -You can’t use the `#[should_panic]` annotation on tests that use `Result`. To assert that an operation returns an `Err` variant, *don’t* use the +You can’t use the `#[should_panic]` annotation on tests that use `Result`. To assert that an operation returns an `Err` variant, *don’t* use the question mark operator on the `Result` value. Instead, use `assert!(value.is_err())`. Now that you know several ways to write tests, let’s look at what is happening -when we run our tests and explore the different options we can use with `cargo -test`. +when we run our tests and explore the different options we can use with `cargo test`. ## Controlling How Tests Are Run @@ -958,6 +1083,7 @@ printed to standard output with the rest of the failure message. As an example, Listing 11-10 has a silly function that prints the value of its parameter and returns 10, as well as a test that passes and a test that fails. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` @@ -973,48 +1099,54 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn this_test_will_pass() { let value = prints_and_returns_10(4); - assert_eq!(10, value); + assert_eq!(value, 10); } #[test] fn this_test_will_fail() { let value = prints_and_returns_10(8); - assert_eq!(5, value); + assert_eq!(value, 5); } } ``` -Listing 11-10: Tests for a function that calls `println!` +Listing 11-10: Tests for a function that calls println! When we run these tests with `cargo test`, we’ll see the following output: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling silly-function v0.1.0 (file:///projects/silly-function) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.58s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/silly_function-160869f38cff9166) + running 2 tests -test tests::this_test_will_pass ... ok test tests::this_test_will_fail ... FAILED +test tests::this_test_will_pass ... ok failures: ---- tests::this_test_will_fail stdout ---- -1 I got the value 8 -thread 'main' panicked at 'assertion failed: `(left == right)` - left: `5`, - right: `10`', src/lib.rs:19:9 -note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display -a backtrace +I got the value 8 +thread 'tests::this_test_will_fail' panicked at src/lib.rs:19:9: +assertion `left == right` failed + left: 10 + right: 5 +note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace + failures: tests::this_test_will_fail -test result: FAILED. 1 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: FAILED. 1 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` Note that nowhere in this output do we see `I got the value 4`, which is printed when the test that passes runs. That output has been captured. The -output from the test that failed, `I got the value 8` [1], appears in the -section of the test summary output, which also shows the cause of the test -failure. +output from the test that failed, `I got the value 8`, appears in the section +of the test summary output, which also shows the cause of the test failure. If we want to see printed values for passing tests as well, we can tell Rust to also show the output of successful tests with `--show-output`: @@ -1027,9 +1159,14 @@ When we run the tests in Listing 11-10 again with the `--show-output` flag, we see the following output: ``` +$ cargo test -- --show-output + Compiling silly-function v0.1.0 (file:///projects/silly-function) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.60s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/silly_function-160869f38cff9166) + running 2 tests -test tests::this_test_will_pass ... ok test tests::this_test_will_fail ... FAILED +test tests::this_test_will_pass ... ok successes: @@ -1044,17 +1181,19 @@ failures: ---- tests::this_test_will_fail stdout ---- I got the value 8 -thread 'main' panicked at 'assertion failed: `(left == right)` - left: `5`, - right: `10`', src/lib.rs:19:9 -note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display -a backtrace +thread 'tests::this_test_will_fail' panicked at src/lib.rs:19:9: +assertion `left == right` failed + left: 5 + right: 10 +note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace + failures: tests::this_test_will_fail -test result: FAILED. 1 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: FAILED. 1 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` ### Running a Subset of Tests by Name @@ -1067,10 +1206,11 @@ or names of the test(s) you want to run as an argument. To demonstrate how to run a subset of tests, we’ll first create three tests for our `add_two` function, as shown in Listing 11-11, and choose which ones to run. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { a + 2 } @@ -1080,17 +1220,20 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn add_two_and_two() { - assert_eq!(4, add_two(2)); + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } #[test] fn add_three_and_two() { - assert_eq!(5, add_two(3)); + let result = add_two(3); + assert_eq!(result, 5); } #[test] fn one_hundred() { - assert_eq!(102, add_two(100)); + let result = add_two(100); + assert_eq!(result, 102); } } ``` @@ -1101,13 +1244,24 @@ If we run the tests without passing any arguments, as we saw earlier, all the tests will run in parallel: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.62s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + running 3 tests test tests::add_three_and_two ... ok test tests::add_two_and_two ... ok test tests::one_hundred ... ok -test result: ok. 3 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 3 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests adder + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` #### Running Single Tests @@ -1117,15 +1271,14 @@ We can pass the name of any test function to `cargo test` to run only that test: ``` $ cargo test one_hundred Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.69s - Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder- -92948b65e88960b4) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.69s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) running 1 test test tests::one_hundred ... ok -test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 2 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 2 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` Only the test with the name `one_hundred` ran; the other two tests didn’t match @@ -1144,16 +1297,15 @@ run those two by running `cargo test add`: ``` $ cargo test add Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s - Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder- -92948b65e88960b4) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) running 2 tests test tests::add_three_and_two ... ok test tests::add_two_and_two ... ok -test result: ok. 2 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 1 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 2 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 1 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` This command ran all tests with `add` in the name and filtered out the test @@ -1172,16 +1324,21 @@ here: Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -#[test] -fn it_works() { - let result = 2 + 2; - assert_eq!(result, 4); -} +#[cfg(test)] +mod tests { + use super::*; -#[test] -#[ignore] -fn expensive_test() { - // code that takes an hour to run + #[test] + fn it_works() { + let result = add(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); + } + + #[test] + #[ignore] + fn expensive_test() { + // code that takes an hour to run + } } ``` @@ -1191,16 +1348,21 @@ Now when we run our tests, `it_works` runs, but `expensive_test` doesn’t: ``` $ cargo test Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.60s - Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder- -92948b65e88960b4) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.60s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) running 2 tests -test expensive_test ... ignored -test it_works ... ok +test tests::expensive_test ... ignored +test tests::it_works ... ok + +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 1 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests adder + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s -test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 1 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s ``` The `expensive_test` function is listed as `ignored`. If we want to run only @@ -1208,15 +1370,21 @@ the ignored tests, we can use `cargo test -- --ignored`: ``` $ cargo test -- --ignored - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s - Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder- -92948b65e88960b4) + Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) running 1 test test expensive_test ... ok -test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 1 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 1 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests adder + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` By controlling which tests run, you can make sure your `cargo test` results @@ -1248,11 +1416,10 @@ code that they’re testing. The convention is to create a module named `tests` in each file to contain the test functions and to annotate the module with `cfg(test)`. -#### The Tests Module and #[cfg(test)] +#### The Tests Module and `#[cfg(test)]` The `#[cfg(test)]` annotation on the `tests` module tells Rust to compile and -run the test code only when you run `cargo test`, not when you run `cargo -build`. This saves compile time when you only want to build the library and +run the test code only when you run `cargo test`, not when you run `cargo build`. This saves compile time when you only want to build the library and saves space in the resultant compiled artifact because the tests are not included. You’ll see that because integration tests go in a different directory, they don’t need the `#[cfg(test)]` annotation. However, because unit @@ -1265,24 +1432,29 @@ this chapter, Cargo generated this code for us: Filename: src/lib.rs ``` +pub fn add(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right +} + #[cfg(test)] mod tests { + use super::*; + #[test] fn it_works() { - let result = 2 + 2; + let result = add(2, 2); assert_eq!(result, 4); } } ``` -This code is the automatically generated `tests` module. The attribute `cfg` -stands for *configuration* and tells Rust that the following item should only -be included given a certain configuration option. In this case, the -configuration option is `test`, which is provided by Rust for compiling and -running tests. By using the `cfg` attribute, Cargo compiles our test code only -if we actively run the tests with `cargo test`. This includes any helper -functions that might be within this module, in addition to the functions -annotated with `#[test]`. +On the automatically generated `tests` module, the attribute `cfg` stands for +*configuration* and tells Rust that the following item should only be included +given a certain configuration option. In this case, the configuration option is +`test`, which is provided by Rust for compiling and running tests. By using the +`cfg` attribute, Cargo compiles our test code only if we actively run the tests +with `cargo test`. This includes any helper functions that might be within this +module, in addition to the functions annotated with `#[test]`. #### Testing Private Functions @@ -1292,15 +1464,16 @@ impossible to test private functions. Regardless of which testing ideology you adhere to, Rust’s privacy rules do allow you to test private functions. Consider the code in Listing 11-12 with the private function `internal_adder`. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { internal_adder(a, 2) } -fn internal_adder(a: i32, b: i32) -> i32 { - a + b +fn internal_adder(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right } #[cfg(test)] @@ -1309,7 +1482,8 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn internal() { - assert_eq!(4, internal_adder(2, 2)); + let result = internal_adder(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } ``` @@ -1318,11 +1492,12 @@ Listing 11-12: Testing a private function Note that the `internal_adder` function is not marked as `pub`. Tests are just Rust code, and the `tests` module is just another module. As we discussed in -“Paths for Referring to an Item in the Module Tree” on page XX, items in child -modules can use the items in their ancestor modules. In this test, we bring all -of the `test` module’s parent’s items into scope with `use super::*`, and then -the test can call `internal_adder`. If you don’t think private functions should -be tested, there’s nothing in Rust that will compel you to do so. +the “Paths for Referring to an Item in the Module Tree” +section, items in child modules can use the items in their ancestor modules. In +this test, we bring all of the `tests` module’s parent’s items into scope with +`use super::*`, and then the test can call `internal_adder`. If you don’t think +private functions should be tested, there’s nothing in Rust that will compel +you to do so. ### Integration Tests @@ -1334,7 +1509,7 @@ work correctly on their own could have problems when integrated, so test coverage of the integrated code is important as well. To create integration tests, you first need a *tests* directory. -#### The tests Directory +#### The *tests* Directory We create a *tests* directory at the top level of our project directory, next to *src*. Cargo knows to look for integration test files in this directory. We @@ -1350,29 +1525,30 @@ adder ├── Cargo.lock ├── Cargo.toml ├── src -│ └── lib.rs +│   └── lib.rs └── tests └── integration_test.rs ``` Enter the code in Listing 11-13 into the *tests/integration_test.rs* file. + Filename: tests/integration_test.rs ``` -use adder; +use adder::add_two; #[test] fn it_adds_two() { - assert_eq!(4, adder::add_two(2)); + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } ``` -Listing 11-13: An integration test of a function in the `adder` crate +Listing 11-13: An integration test of a function in the adder crate Each file in the *tests* directory is a separate crate, so we need to bring our -library into each test crate’s scope. For that reason we add `use adder;` at -the top of the code, which we didn’t need in the unit tests. +library into each test crate’s scope. For that reason we add `use adder::add_two;` at the top of the code, which we didn’t need in the unit tests. We don’t need to annotate any code in *tests/integration_test.rs* with `#[cfg(test)]`. Cargo treats the *tests* directory specially and compiles files @@ -1381,31 +1557,27 @@ in this directory only when we run `cargo test`. Run `cargo test` now: ``` $ cargo test Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.31s - Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder- -1082c4b063a8fbe6) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.31s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-1082c4b063a8fbe6) -1 running 1 test +running 1 test test tests::internal ... ok -test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s - 2 Running tests/integration_test.rs -(target/debug/deps/integration_test-1082c4b063a8fbe6) + Running tests/integration_test.rs (target/debug/deps/integration_test-1082c4b063a8fbe6) running 1 test -3 test it_adds_two ... ok +test it_adds_two ... ok -4 test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s Doc-tests adder running 0 tests -test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` The three sections of output include the unit tests, the integration test, and @@ -1414,14 +1586,13 @@ will not be run. For example, if a unit test fails, there won’t be any output for integration and doc tests because those tests will only be run if all unit tests are passing. -The first section for the unit tests [1] is the same as we’ve been seeing: one -line for each unit test (one named `internal` that we added in Listing 11-12) -and then a summary line for the unit tests. +The first section for the unit tests is the same as we’ve been seeing: one line +for each unit test (one named `internal` that we added in Listing 11-12) and +then a summary line for the unit tests. -The integration tests section starts with the line `Running -tests/integration_test.rs` [2]. Next, there is a line for each test function in -that integration test [3] and a summary line for the results of the integration -test [4] just before the `Doc-tests adder` section starts. +The integration tests section starts with the line `Running tests/integration_test.rs`. Next, there is a line for each test function in +that integration test and a summary line for the results of the integration +test just before the `Doc-tests adder` section starts. Each integration test file has its own section, so if we add more files in the *tests* directory, there will be more integration test sections. @@ -1433,15 +1604,15 @@ followed by the name of the file: ``` $ cargo test --test integration_test - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.64s - Running tests/integration_test.rs -(target/debug/deps/integration_test-82e7799c1bc62298) + Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.64s + Running tests/integration_test.rs (target/debug/deps/integration_test-82e7799c1bc62298) running 1 test test it_adds_two ... ok -test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` This command runs only the tests in the *tests/integration_test.rs* file. @@ -1459,11 +1630,11 @@ regarding how to separate code into modules and files. The different behavior of *tests* directory files is most noticeable when you have a set of helper functions to use in multiple integration test files and -you try to follow the steps in “Separating Modules into Different Files” on -page XX to extract them into a common module. For example, if we create -*tests/common.rs* and place a function named `setup` in it, we can add some -code to `setup` that we want to call from multiple test functions in multiple -test files: +you try to follow the steps in the “Separating Modules into Different +Files” section of Chapter 7 to +extract them into a common module. For example, if we create *tests/common.rs* +and place a function named `setup` in it, we can add some code to `setup` that +we want to call from multiple test functions in multiple test files: Filename: tests/common.rs @@ -1478,35 +1649,35 @@ When we run the tests again, we’ll see a new section in the test output for th did we call the `setup` function from anywhere: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.89s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + running 1 test test tests::internal ... ok -test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s - Running tests/common.rs (target/debug/deps/common- -92948b65e88960b4) + Running tests/common.rs (target/debug/deps/common-92948b65e88960b4) running 0 tests -test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s - Running tests/integration_test.rs -(target/debug/deps/integration_test-92948b65e88960b4) + Running tests/integration_test.rs (target/debug/deps/integration_test-92948b65e88960b4) running 1 test test it_adds_two ... ok -test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s Doc-tests adder running 0 tests -test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` Having `common` appear in the test results with `running 0 tests` displayed for @@ -1519,20 +1690,21 @@ project directory now looks like this: ├── Cargo.lock ├── Cargo.toml ├── src -│ └── lib.rs +│   └── lib.rs └── tests ├── common - │ └── mod.rs + │   └── mod.rs └── integration_test.rs ``` This is the older naming convention that Rust also understands that we -mentioned in “Alternate File Paths” on page XX. Naming the file this way tells -Rust not to treat the `common` module as an integration test file. When we move -the `setup` function code into *tests/common/mod.rs* and delete the -*tests/common.rs* file, the section in the test output will no longer appear. -Files in subdirectories of the *tests* directory don’t get compiled as separate -crates or have sections in the test output. +mentioned in the “Alternate File Paths” section of +Chapter 7. Naming the file this way tells Rust not to treat the `common` module +as an integration test file. When we move the `setup` function code into +*tests/common/mod.rs* and delete the *tests/common.rs* file, the section in the +test output will no longer appear. Files in subdirectories of the *tests* +directory don’t get compiled as separate crates or have sections in the test +output. After we’ve created *tests/common/mod.rs*, we can use it from any of the integration test files as a module. Here’s an example of calling the `setup` @@ -1541,14 +1713,16 @@ function from the `it_adds_two` test in *tests/integration_test.rs*: Filename: tests/integration_test.rs ``` -use adder; +use adder::add_two; mod common; #[test] fn it_adds_two() { common::setup(); - assert_eq!(4, adder::add_two(2)); + + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } ``` @@ -1584,4 +1758,3 @@ reduce logic bugs having to do with how your code is expected to behave. Let’s combine the knowledge you learned in this chapter and in previous chapters to work on a project! - diff --git a/nostarch/chapter12.md b/nostarch/chapter12.md index 86e986173..3ce134974 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter12.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter12.md @@ -44,7 +44,8 @@ Our `grep` project will combine a number of concepts you’ve learned so far: * Writing tests (Chapter 11) We’ll also briefly introduce closures, iterators, and trait objects, which -Chapter 13 and Chapter 17 will cover in detail. +Chapter 13 and Chapter 17 will +cover in detail. ## Accepting Command Line Arguments @@ -69,24 +70,24 @@ $ cargo run -- searchstring example-filename.txt ``` Right now, the program generated by `cargo new` cannot process arguments we -give it. Some existing libraries on *https://crates.io* can help with writing a -program that accepts command line arguments, but because you’re just learning -this concept, let’s implement this capability ourselves. +give it. Some existing libraries on crates.io at *https://crates.io/* can help +with writing a program that accepts command line arguments, but because you’re +just learning this concept, let’s implement this capability ourselves. ### Reading the Argument Values To enable `minigrep` to read the values of command line arguments we pass to it, we’ll need the `std::env::args` function provided in Rust’s standard library. This function returns an iterator of the command line arguments passed -to `minigrep`. We’ll cover iterators fully in Chapter 13. For now, you only -need to know two details about iterators: iterators produce a series of values, -and we can call the `collect` method on an iterator to turn it into a -collection, such as a vector, that contains all the elements the iterator -produces. +to `minigrep`. We’ll cover iterators fully in Chapter 13. For now, you only need to know two details about iterators: iterators +produce a series of values, and we can call the `collect` method on an iterator +to turn it into a collection, such as a vector, that contains all the elements +the iterator produces. The code in Listing 12-1 allows your `minigrep` program to read any command line arguments passed to it, and then collect the values into a vector. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` @@ -98,27 +99,27 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 12-1: Collecting the command line arguments into a vector and printing -them +Listing 12-1: Collecting the command line arguments into a vector and printing them First we bring the `std::env` module into scope with a `use` statement so we can use its `args` function. Notice that the `std::env::args` function is -nested in two levels of modules. As we discussed in Chapter 7, in cases where -the desired function is nested in more than one module, we’ve chosen to bring -the parent module into scope rather than the function. By doing so, we can -easily use other functions from `std::env`. It’s also less ambiguous than -adding `use std::env::args` and then calling the function with just `args`, -because `args` might easily be mistaken for a function that’s defined in the -current module. - -> ### The args Function and Invalid Unicode -> -> Note that `std::env::args` will panic if any argument contains invalid -Unicode. If your program needs to accept arguments containing invalid Unicode, -use `std::env::args_os` instead. That function returns an iterator that -produces `OsString` values instead of `String` values. We’ve chosen to use -`std::env::args` here for simplicity because `OsString` values differ per -platform and are more complex to work with than `String` values. +nested in two levels of modules. As we discussed in Chapter +7, in cases where the desired function is +nested in more than one module, we’ve chosen to bring the parent module into +scope rather than the function. By doing so, we can easily use other functions +from `std::env`. It’s also less ambiguous than adding `use std::env::args` and +then calling the function with just `args`, because `args` might easily be +mistaken for a function that’s defined in the current module. + + > + > ### The `args` Function and Invalid Unicode + > + > Note that `std::env::args` will panic if any argument contains invalid + > Unicode. If your program needs to accept arguments containing invalid + > Unicode, use `std::env::args_os` instead. That function returns an iterator + > that produces `OsString` values instead of `String` values. We’ve chosen to + > use `std::env::args` here for simplicity because `OsString` values differ per + > platform and are more complex to work with than `String` values. On the first line of `main`, we call `env::args`, and we immediately use `collect` to turn the iterator into a vector containing all the values produced @@ -133,13 +134,20 @@ first with no arguments and then with two arguments: ``` $ cargo run ---snip-- -[src/main.rs:5] args = [ + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s + Running `target/debug/minigrep` +[src/main.rs:5:5] args = [ "target/debug/minigrep", ] +``` + +``` $ cargo run -- needle haystack ---snip-- -[src/main.rs:5] args = [ + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.57s + Running `target/debug/minigrep needle haystack` +[src/main.rs:5:5] args = [ "target/debug/minigrep", "needle", "haystack", @@ -161,6 +169,7 @@ arguments. Now we need to save the values of the two arguments in variables so we can use the values throughout the rest of the program. We do that in Listing 12-2. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` @@ -172,13 +181,12 @@ fn main() { let query = &args[1]; let file_path = &args[2]; - println!("Searching for {}", query); - println!("In file {}", file_path); + println!("Searching for {query}"); + println!("In file {file_path}"); } ``` -Listing 12-2: Creating variables to hold the query argument and file path -argument +Listing 12-2: Creating variables to hold the query argument and file path argument As we saw when we printed the vector, the program’s name takes up the first value in the vector at `args[0]`, so we’re starting arguments at index 1. The @@ -194,7 +202,7 @@ and `sample.txt`: ``` $ cargo run -- test sample.txt Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep test sample.txt` Searching for test In file sample.txt @@ -215,6 +223,7 @@ has an Emily Dickinson poem that will work well! Create a file called *poem.txt* at the root level of your project, and enter the poem “I’m Nobody! Who are you?” + Filename: poem.txt ``` @@ -234,34 +243,36 @@ Listing 12-3: A poem by Emily Dickinson makes a good test case. With the text in place, edit *src/main.rs* and add code to read the file, as shown in Listing 12-4. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` use std::env; -1 use std::fs; +use std::fs; fn main() { - --snip-- - println!("In file {}", file_path); + // --snip-- + println!("In file {file_path}"); - 2 let contents = fs::read_to_string(file_path) + let contents = fs::read_to_string(file_path) .expect("Should have been able to read the file"); - 3 println!("With text:\n{contents}"); + println!("With text:\n{contents}"); } ``` Listing 12-4: Reading the contents of the file specified by the second argument First we bring in a relevant part of the standard library with a `use` -statement: we need `std::fs` to handle files [1]. +statement: we need `std::fs` to handle files. In `main`, the new statement `fs::read_to_string` takes the `file_path`, opens -that file, and returns an `std::io::Result` of the file’s contents [2]. +that file, and returns a value of type `std::io::Result` that contains +the file’s contents. After that, we again add a temporary `println!` statement that prints the value of `contents` after the file is read, so we can check that the program is -working so far [3]. +working so far. Let’s run this code with any string as the first command line argument (because we haven’t implemented the searching part yet) and the *poem.txt* file as the @@ -270,7 +281,7 @@ second argument: ``` $ cargo run -- the poem.txt Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep the poem.txt` Searching for the In file poem.txt @@ -284,6 +295,7 @@ How dreary to be somebody! How public, like a frog To tell your name the livelong day To an admiring bog! + ``` Great! The code read and then printed the contents of the file. But the code @@ -315,19 +327,18 @@ it will be to keep track of the purpose of each. It’s best to group the configuration variables into one structure to make their purpose clear. The third problem is that we’ve used `expect` to print an error message when -reading the file fails, but the error message just prints `Should have been -able to read the file`. Reading a file can fail in a number of ways: for +reading the file fails, but the error message just prints `Should have been able to read the file`. Reading a file can fail in a number of ways: for example, the file could be missing, or we might not have permission to open it. Right now, regardless of the situation, we’d print the same error message for everything, which wouldn’t give the user any information! -Fourth, we use `expect` repeatedly to handle different errors, and if the user -runs our program without specifying enough arguments, they’ll get an `index out -of bounds` error from Rust that doesn’t clearly explain the problem. It would -be best if all the error-handling code were in one place so future maintainers -had only one place to consult the code if the error-handling logic needed to -change. Having all the error-handling code in one place will also ensure that -we’re printing messages that will be meaningful to our end users. +Fourth, we use `expect` to handle an error, and if the user runs our program +without specifying enough arguments, they’ll get an `index out of bounds` error +from Rust that doesn’t clearly explain the problem. It would be best if all the +error-handling code were in one place so future maintainers had only one place +to consult the code if the error-handling logic needed to change. Having all the +error-handling code in one place will also ensure that we’re printing messages +that will be meaningful to our end users. Let’s address these four problems by refactoring our project. @@ -340,11 +351,11 @@ binary program when `main` starts getting large. This process has the following steps: * Split your program into a *main.rs* file and a *lib.rs* file and move your -program’s logic to *lib.rs*. + program’s logic to *lib.rs*. * As long as your command line parsing logic is small, it can remain in -*main.rs*. + *main.rs*. * When the command line parsing logic starts getting complicated, extract it -from *main.rs* and move it to *lib.rs*. + from *main.rs* and move it to *lib.rs*. The responsibilities that remain in the `main` function after this process should be limited to the following: @@ -365,9 +376,10 @@ it. Let’s rework our program by following this process. We’ll extract the functionality for parsing arguments into a function that `main` will call to prepare for moving the command line parsing logic to -src/lib.rs*. Listing 12-5 shows the new start of `main` that calls a new +*src/lib.rs*. Listing 12-5 shows the new start of `main` that calls a new function `parse_config`, which we’ll define in *src/main.rs* for the moment. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` @@ -376,7 +388,7 @@ fn main() { let (query, file_path) = parse_config(&args); - --snip-- + // --snip-- } fn parse_config(args: &[String]) -> (&str, &str) { @@ -387,7 +399,7 @@ fn parse_config(args: &[String]) -> (&str, &str) { } ``` -Listing 12-5: Extracting a `parse_config` function from `main` +Listing 12-5: Extracting a parse_config function from main We’re still collecting the command line arguments into a vector, but instead of assigning the argument value at index 1 to the variable `query` and the @@ -422,42 +434,42 @@ other and what their purpose is. Listing 12-6 shows the improvements to the `parse_config` function. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - 1 let config = parse_config(&args); + let config = parse_config(&args); - println!("Searching for {}", 2 config.query); - println!("In file {}", 3 config.file_path); + println!("Searching for {}", config.query); + println!("In file {}", config.file_path); - let contents = fs::read_to_string(4 config.file_path) + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path) .expect("Should have been able to read the file"); - --snip-- + // --snip-- } -5 struct Config { +struct Config { query: String, file_path: String, } -6 fn parse_config(args: &[String]) -> Config { - 7 let query = args[1].clone(); - 8 let file_path = args[2].clone(); +fn parse_config(args: &[String]) -> Config { + let query = args[1].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); Config { query, file_path } } ``` -Listing 12-6: Refactoring `parse_config` to return an instance of a `Config` -struct +Listing 12-6: Refactoring parse_config to return an instance of a Config struct We’ve added a struct named `Config` defined to have fields named `query` and -`file_path` [5]. The signature of `parse_config` now indicates that it returns -a `Config` value [6]. In the body of `parse_config`, where we used to return +`file_path`. The signature of `parse_config` now indicates that it returns a +`Config` value. In the body of `parse_config`, where we used to return string slices that reference `String` values in `args`, we now define `Config` to contain owned `String` values. The `args` variable in `main` is the owner of the argument values and is only letting the `parse_config` function borrow @@ -465,44 +477,45 @@ them, which means we’d violate Rust’s borrowing rules if `Config` tried to t ownership of the values in `args`. There are a number of ways we could manage the `String` data; the easiest, -though somewhat inefficient, route is to call the `clone` method on the values -[7] [8]. This will make a full copy of the data for the `Config` instance to -own, which takes more time and memory than storing a reference to the string -data. However, cloning the data also makes our code very straightforward -because we don’t have to manage the lifetimes of the references; in this -circumstance, giving up a little performance to gain simplicity is a worthwhile -trade-off. - -> ### The Trade-Offs of Using clone -> -> There’s a tendency among many Rustaceans to avoid using `clone` to fix -ownership problems because of its runtime cost. In Chapter 13, you’ll learn how -to use more efficient methods in this type of situation. But for now, it’s okay -to copy a few strings to continue making progress because you’ll make these -copies only once and your file path and query string are very small. It’s -better to have a working program that’s a bit inefficient than to try to -hyperoptimize code on your first pass. As you become more experienced with -Rust, it’ll be easier to start with the most efficient solution, but for now, -it’s perfectly acceptable to call `clone`. +though somewhat inefficient, route is to call the `clone` method on the values. +This will make a full copy of the data for the `Config` instance to own, which +takes more time and memory than storing a reference to the string data. +However, cloning the data also makes our code very straightforward because we +don’t have to manage the lifetimes of the references; in this circumstance, +giving up a little performance to gain simplicity is a worthwhile trade-off. + + > + > ### The Trade-Offs of Using `clone` + > + > There’s a tendency among many Rustaceans to avoid using `clone` to fix + > ownership problems because of its runtime cost. In + > Chapter 13, you’ll learn how to use more efficient + > methods in this type of situation. But for now, it’s okay to copy a few + > strings to continue making progress because you’ll make these copies only + > once and your file path and query string are very small. It’s better to have + > a working program that’s a bit inefficient than to try to hyperoptimize code + > on your first pass. As you become more experienced with Rust, it’ll be + > easier to start with the most efficient solution, but for now, it’s + > perfectly acceptable to call `clone`. We’ve updated `main` so it places the instance of `Config` returned by -`parse_config` into a variable named `config` [1], and we updated the code that +`parse_config` into a variable named `config`, and we updated the code that previously used the separate `query` and `file_path` variables so it now uses -the fields on the `Config` struct instead [2] [3] [4]. +the fields on the `Config` struct instead. Now our code more clearly conveys that `query` and `file_path` are related and that their purpose is to configure how the program will work. Any code that uses these values knows to find them in the `config` instance in the fields named for their purpose. -#### Creating a Constructor for Config +#### Creating a Constructor for `Config` So far, we’ve extracted the logic responsible for parsing the command line arguments from `main` and placed it in the `parse_config` function. Doing so helped us see that the `query` and `file_path` values were related, and that relationship should be conveyed in our code. We then added a `Config` struct to -name the related purpose of `query` and `file_path` and to be able to return -the values’ names as struct field names from the `parse_config` function. +name the related purpose of `query` and `file_path` and to be able to return the +values’ names as struct field names from the `parse_config` function. So now that the purpose of the `parse_config` function is to create a `Config` instance, we can change `parse_config` from a plain function to a function @@ -513,21 +526,22 @@ changing `parse_config` into a `new` function associated with `Config`, we’ll be able to create instances of `Config` by calling `Config::new`. Listing 12-7 shows the changes we need to make. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - 1 let config = Config::new(&args); + let config = Config::new(&args); - --snip-- + // --snip-- } ---snip-- +// --snip-- -2 impl Config { - 3 fn new(args: &[String]) -> Config { +impl Config { + fn new(args: &[String]) -> Config { let query = args[1].clone(); let file_path = args[2].clone(); @@ -536,12 +550,12 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 12-7: Changing `parse_config` into `Config::new` +Listing 12-7: Changing parse_config into Config::new We’ve updated `main` where we were calling `parse_config` to instead call -`Config::new` [1]. We’ve changed the name of `parse_config` to `new` [3] and -moved it within an `impl` block [2], which associates the `new` function with -`Config`. Try compiling this code again to make sure it works. +`Config::new`. We’ve changed the name of `parse_config` to `new` and moved it +within an `impl` block, which associates the `new` function with `Config`. Try +compiling this code again to make sure it works. ### Fixing the Error Handling @@ -553,12 +567,11 @@ without any arguments; it will look like this: ``` $ cargo run Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep` -thread 'main' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 1 but -the index is 1', src/main.rs:27:21 -note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display -a backtrace +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:27:21: +index out of bounds: the len is 1 but the index is 1 +note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace ``` The line `index out of bounds: the len is 1 but the index is 1` is an error @@ -571,26 +584,27 @@ In Listing 12-8, we add a check in the `new` function that will verify that the slice is long enough before accessing index 1 and index 2. If the slice isn’t long enough, the program panics and displays a better error message. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` ---snip-- -fn new(args: &[String]) -> Config { - if args.len() < 3 { - panic!("not enough arguments"); - } - --snip-- + // --snip-- + fn new(args: &[String]) -> Config { + if args.len() < 3 { + panic!("not enough arguments"); + } + // --snip-- ``` Listing 12-8: Adding a check for the number of arguments -This code is similar to the `Guess::new` function we wrote in Listing 9-13, -where we called `panic!` when the `value` argument was out of the range of -valid values. Instead of checking for a range of values here, we’re checking -that the length of `args` is at least `3` and the rest of the function can -operate under the assumption that this condition has been met. If `args` has -fewer than three items, this condition will be `true`, and we call the `panic!` -macro to end the program immediately. +This code is similar to the `Guess::new` function we wrote in Listing +9-13, where we called `panic!` when the +`value` argument was out of the range of valid values. Instead of checking for +a range of values here, we’re checking that the length of `args` is at least +`3` and the rest of the function can operate under the assumption that this +condition has been met. If `args` has fewer than three items, this condition +will be `true`, and we call the `panic!` macro to end the program immediately. With these extra few lines of code in `new`, let’s run the program without any arguments again to see what the error looks like now: @@ -598,23 +612,26 @@ arguments again to see what the error looks like now: ``` $ cargo run Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep` -thread 'main' panicked at 'not enough arguments', -src/main.rs:26:13 -note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display -a backtrace +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:26:13: +not enough arguments +note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace ``` This output is better: we now have a reasonable error message. However, we also have extraneous information we don’t want to give to our users. Perhaps the technique we used in Listing 9-13 isn’t the best one to use here: a call to -`panic!` is more appropriate for a programming problem than a usage problem, as -discussed in Chapter 9. Instead, we’ll use the other technique you learned -about in Chapter 9—returning a `Result` that indicates either success or an -error. +`panic!` is more appropriate for a programming problem than a usage problem, +as discussed in Chapter 9. Instead, +we’ll use the other technique you learned about in Chapter 9—returning a +`Result` that indicates either success or an error. -#### Returning a Result Instead of Calling panic! + + + + +#### Returning a `Result` Instead of Calling `panic!` We can instead return a `Result` value that will contain a `Config` instance in the successful case and will describe the problem in the error case. We’re also @@ -622,14 +639,14 @@ going to change the function name from `new` to `build` because many programmers expect `new` functions to never fail. When `Config::build` is communicating to `main`, we can use the `Result` type to signal there was a problem. Then we can change `main` to convert an `Err` variant into a more -practical error for our users without the surrounding text about `thread -'main'` and `RUST_BACKTRACE` that a call to `panic!` causes. +practical error for our users without the surrounding text about `thread 'main'` and `RUST_BACKTRACE` that a call to `panic!` causes. Listing 12-9 shows the changes we need to make to the return value of the function we’re now calling `Config::build` and the body of the function needed to return a `Result`. Note that this won’t compile until we update `main` as well, which we’ll do in the next listing. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` @@ -647,10 +664,10 @@ impl Config { } ``` -Listing 12-9: Returning a `Result` from `Config::build` +Listing 12-9: Returning a Result from Config::build Our `build` function returns a `Result` with a `Config` instance in the success -case and an `&'static str` in the error case. Our error values will always be +case and a string literal in the error case. Our error values will always be string literals that have the `'static` lifetime. We’ve made two changes in the body of the function: instead of calling `panic!` @@ -662,7 +679,11 @@ Returning an `Err` value from `Config::build` allows the `main` function to handle the `Result` value returned from the `build` function and exit the process more cleanly in the error case. -#### Calling Config::build and Handling Errors + + + + +#### Calling `Config::build` and Handling Errors To handle the error case and print a user-friendly message, we need to update `main` to handle the `Result` being returned by `Config::build`, as shown in @@ -671,41 +692,42 @@ tool with a nonzero error code away from `panic!` and instead implement it by hand. A nonzero exit status is a convention to signal to the process that called our program that the program exited with an error state. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` -1 use std::process; +use std::process; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - 2 let config = Config::build(&args).3 unwrap_or_else(|4 err| { - 5 println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); - 6 process::exit(1); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); + process::exit(1); }); - --snip-- + // --snip-- ``` -Listing 12-10: Exiting with an error code if building a `Config` fails +Listing 12-10: Exiting with an error code if building a Config fails In this listing, we’ve used a method we haven’t covered in detail yet: -`unwrap_or_else`, which is defined on `Result` by the standard library -[2]. Using `unwrap_or_else` allows us to define some custom, non-`panic!` error +`unwrap_or_else`, which is defined on `Result` by the standard library. +Using `unwrap_or_else` allows us to define some custom, non-`panic!` error handling. If the `Result` is an `Ok` value, this method’s behavior is similar to `unwrap`: it returns the inner value that `Ok` is wrapping. However, if the value is an `Err` value, this method calls the code in the *closure*, which is -an anonymous function we define and pass as an argument to `unwrap_or_else` -[3]. We’ll cover closures in more detail in Chapter 13. For now, you just need -to know that `unwrap_or_else` will pass the inner value of the `Err`, which in -this case is the static string `"not enough arguments"` that we added in -Listing 12-9, to our closure in the argument `err` that appears between the -vertical pipes [4]. The code in the closure can then use the `err` value when -it runs. +an anonymous function we define and pass as an argument to `unwrap_or_else`. +We’ll cover closures in more detail in Chapter 13. For +now, you just need to know that `unwrap_or_else` will pass the inner value of +the `Err`, which in this case is the static string `"not enough arguments"` +that we added in Listing 12-9, to our closure in the argument `err` that +appears between the vertical pipes. The code in the closure can then use the +`err` value when it runs. We’ve added a new `use` line to bring `process` from the standard library into -scope [1]. The code in the closure that will be run in the error case is only -two lines: we print the `err` value [5] and then call `process::exit` [6]. The +scope. The code in the closure that will be run in the error case is only two +lines: we print the `err` value and then call `process::exit`. The `process::exit` function will stop the program immediately and return the number that was passed as the exit status code. This is similar to the `panic!`-based handling we used in Listing 12-8, but we no longer get all the @@ -714,32 +736,33 @@ extra output. Let’s try it: ``` $ cargo run Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.48s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.48s Running `target/debug/minigrep` Problem parsing arguments: not enough arguments ``` Great! This output is much friendlier for our users. -### Extracting Logic from main +### Extracting Logic from `main` Now that we’ve finished refactoring the configuration parsing, let’s turn to the program’s logic. As we stated in “Separation of Concerns for Binary -Projects” on page XX, we’ll extract a function named `run` that will hold all -the logic currently in the `main` function that isn’t involved with setting up -configuration or handling errors. When we’re done, `main` will be concise and -easy to verify by inspection, and we’ll be able to write tests for all the -other logic. +Projects”, we’ll +extract a function named `run` that will hold all the logic currently in the +`main` function that isn’t involved with setting up configuration or handling +errors. When we’re done, `main` will be concise and easy to verify by +inspection, and we’ll be able to write tests for all the other logic. Listing 12-11 shows the extracted `run` function. For now, we’re just making the small, incremental improvement of extracting the function. We’re still defining the function in *src/main.rs*. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { - --snip-- + // --snip-- println!("Searching for {}", config.query); println!("In file {}", config.file_path); @@ -754,17 +777,16 @@ fn run(config: Config) { println!("With text:\n{contents}"); } ---snip-- +// --snip-- ``` -Listing 12-11: Extracting a `run` function containing the rest of the program -logic +Listing 12-11: Extracting a run function containing the rest of the program logic The `run` function now contains all the remaining logic from `main`, starting from reading the file. The `run` function takes the `Config` instance as an argument. -#### Returning Errors from the run Function +#### Returning Errors from the `run` Function With the remaining program logic separated into the `run` function, we can improve the error handling, as we did with `Config::build` in Listing 12-9. @@ -774,42 +796,45 @@ us further consolidate the logic around handling errors into `main` in a user-friendly way. Listing 12-12 shows the changes we need to make to the signature and body of `run`. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` -1 use std::error::Error; +use std::error::Error; ---snip-- +// --snip-- -2 fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)3 ?; +fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; println!("With text:\n{contents}"); - 4 Ok(()) + Ok(()) } ``` -Listing 12-12: Changing the `run` function to return `Result` +Listing 12-12: Changing the run function to return Result We’ve made three significant changes here. First, we changed the return type of -the `run` function to `Result<(), Box>` [2]. This function -previously returned the unit type, `()`, and we keep that as the value returned -in the `Ok` case. +the `run` function to `Result<(), Box>`. This function previously +returned the unit type, `()`, and we keep that as the value returned in the +`Ok` case. For the error type, we used the *trait object* `Box` (and we’ve -brought `std::error::Error` into scope with a `use` statement at the top [1]). -We’ll cover trait objects in Chapter 17. For now, just know that `Box` means the function will return a type that implements the `Error` -trait, but we don’t have to specify what particular type the return value will -be. This gives us flexibility to return error values that may be of different -types in different error cases. The `dyn` keyword is short for *dynamic*. - -Second, we’ve removed the call to `expect` in favor of the `?` operator [3], as -we talked about in Chapter 9. Rather than `panic!` on an error, `?` will return -the error value from the current function for the caller to handle. - -Third, the `run` function now returns an `Ok` value in the success case [4]. +brought `std::error::Error` into scope with a `use` statement at the top). +We’ll cover trait objects in Chapter 17. For now, just +know that `Box` means the function will return a type that +implements the `Error` trait, but we don’t have to specify what particular type +the return value will be. This gives us flexibility to return error values that +may be of different types in different error cases. The `dyn` keyword is short +for *dynamic*. + +Second, we’ve removed the call to `expect` in favor of the `?` operator, as we +talked about in Chapter 9. Rather than +`panic!` on an error, `?` will return the error value from the current function +for the caller to handle. + +Third, the `run` function now returns an `Ok` value in the success case. We’ve declared the `run` function’s success type as `()` in the signature, which means we need to wrap the unit type value in the `Ok` value. This `Ok(())` syntax might look a bit strange at first, but using `()` like this is @@ -819,15 +844,37 @@ only; it doesn’t return a value we need. When you run this code, it will compile but will display a warning: ``` +$ cargo run -- the poem.txt + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) warning: unused `Result` that must be used --> src/main.rs:19:5 | 19 | run(config); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ + | ^^^^^^^^^^^ | + = note: this `Result` may be an `Err` variant, which should be handled = note: `#[warn(unused_must_use)]` on by default - = note: this `Result` may be an `Err` variant, which should be -handled +help: use `let _ = ...` to ignore the resulting value + | +19 | let _ = run(config); + | +++++++ + +warning: `minigrep` (bin "minigrep") generated 1 warning + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.71s + Running `target/debug/minigrep the poem.txt` +Searching for the +In file poem.txt +With text: +I'm nobody! Who are you? +Are you nobody, too? +Then there's a pair of us - don't tell! +They'd banish us, you know. + +How dreary to be somebody! +How public, like a frog +To tell your name the livelong day +To an admiring bog! + ``` Rust tells us that our code ignored the `Result` value and the `Result` value @@ -835,7 +882,7 @@ might indicate that an error occurred. But we’re not checking to see whether o not there was an error, and the compiler reminds us that we probably meant to have some error-handling code here! Let’s rectify that problem now. -#### Handling Errors Returned from run in main +#### Handling Errors Returned from `run` in `main` We’ll check for errors and handle them using a technique similar to one we used with `Config::build` in Listing 12-10, but with a slight difference: @@ -844,7 +891,7 @@ Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { - --snip-- + // --snip-- println!("Searching for {}", config.query); println!("In file {}", config.file_path); @@ -884,6 +931,7 @@ The contents of *src/lib.rs* should have the signatures shown in Listing 12-13 (we’ve omitted the bodies of the functions for brevity). Note that this won’t compile until we modify *src/main.rs* in Listing 12-14. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` @@ -896,19 +944,17 @@ pub struct Config { } impl Config { - pub fn build( - args: &[String], - ) -> Result { - --snip-- + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { + // --snip-- } } pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - --snip-- + // --snip-- } ``` -Listing 12-13: Moving `Config` and `run` into *src/lib.rs* +Listing 12-13: Moving Config and run into src/lib.rs We’ve made liberal use of the `pub` keyword: on `Config`, on its fields and its `build` method, and on the `run` function. We now have a library crate that has @@ -917,6 +963,7 @@ a public API we can test! Now we need to bring the code we moved to *src/lib.rs* into the scope of the binary crate in *src/main.rs*, as shown in Listing 12-14. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` @@ -926,14 +973,14 @@ use std::process; use minigrep::Config; fn main() { - --snip-- + // --snip-- if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - --snip-- + // --snip-- } } ``` -Listing 12-14: Using the `minigrep` library crate in *src/main.rs* +Listing 12-14: Using the minigrep library crate in src/main.rs We add a `use minigrep::Config` line to bring the `Config` type from the library crate into the binary crate’s scope, and we prefix the `run` function @@ -960,10 +1007,10 @@ In this section, we’ll add the searching logic to the `minigrep` program using the test-driven development (TDD) process with the following steps: 1. Write a test that fails and run it to make sure it fails for the reason you -expect. + expect. 1. Write or modify just enough code to make the new test pass. 1. Refactor the code you just added or changed and make sure the tests continue -to pass. + to pass. 1. Repeat from step 1! Though it’s just one of many ways to write software, TDD can help drive code @@ -980,10 +1027,11 @@ lines that match the query. We’ll add this functionality in a function called Because we don’t need them anymore, let’s remove the `println!` statements from *src/lib.rs* and *src/main.rs* that we used to check the program’s behavior. Then, in *src/lib.rs*, we’ll add a `tests` module with a test function, as we -did in Chapter 11. The test function specifies the behavior we want the -`search` function to have: it will take a query and the text to search, and it -will return only the lines from the text that contain the query. Listing 12-15 -shows this test, which won’t compile yet. +did in Chapter 11. The test function specifies +the behavior we want the `search` function to have: it will take a query and +the text to search, and it will return only the lines from the text that +contain the query. Listing 12-15 shows this test, which won’t compile yet. + Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -1000,15 +1048,12 @@ Rust: safe, fast, productive. Pick three."; - assert_eq!( - vec!["safe, fast, productive."], - search(query, contents) - ); + assert_eq!(vec!["safe, fast, productive."], search(query, contents)); } } ``` -Listing 12-15: Creating a failing test for the `search` function we wish we had +Listing 12-15: Creating a failing test for the search function we wish we had This test searches for the string `"duct"`. The text we’re searching is three lines, only one of which contains `"duct"` (note that the backslash after the @@ -1021,29 +1066,26 @@ even compile: the `search` function doesn’t exist yet! In accordance with TDD principles, we’ll add just enough code to get the test to compile and run by adding a definition of the `search` function that always returns an empty vector, as shown in Listing 12-16. Then the test should compile and fail -because an empty vector doesn’t match a vector containing the line `"safe, -fast, productive."`. +because an empty vector doesn’t match a vector containing the line `"safe, fast, productive."` + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -pub fn search<'a>( - query: &str, - contents: &'a str, -) -> Vec<&'a str> { +pub fn search<'a>(query: &str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> { vec![] } ``` -Listing 12-16: Defining just enough of the `search` function so our test will -compile +Listing 12-16: Defining just enough of the search function so our test will compile Notice that we need to define an explicit lifetime `'a` in the signature of `search` and use that lifetime with the `contents` argument and the return -value. Recall in Chapter 10 that the lifetime parameters specify which argument -lifetime is connected to the lifetime of the return value. In this case, we -indicate that the returned vector should contain string slices that reference -slices of the argument `contents` (rather than the argument `query`). +value. Recall in Chapter 10 that the lifetime +parameters specify which argument lifetime is connected to the lifetime of the +return value. In this case, we indicate that the returned vector should contain +string slices that reference slices of the argument `contents` (rather than the +argument `query`). In other words, we tell Rust that the data returned by the `search` function will live as long as the data passed into the `search` function in the @@ -1056,25 +1098,22 @@ If we forget the lifetime annotations and try to compile this function, we’ll get this error: ``` +$ cargo build + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) error[E0106]: missing lifetime specifier - --> src/lib.rs:31:10 + --> src/lib.rs:28:51 | -29 | query: &str, - | ---- -30 | contents: &str, - | ---- -31 | ) -> Vec<&str> { - | ^ expected named lifetime parameter +28 | pub fn search(query: &str, contents: &str) -> Vec<&str> { + | ---- ---- ^ expected named lifetime parameter | - = help: this function's return type contains a borrowed value, but the -signature does not say whether it is borrowed from `query` or `contents` + = help: this function's return type contains a borrowed value, but the signature does not say whether it is borrowed from `query` or `contents` help: consider introducing a named lifetime parameter | -28 ~ pub fn search<'a>( -29 ~ query: &'a str, -30 ~ contents: &'a str, -31 ~ ) -> Vec<&'a str> { - | +28 | pub fn search<'a>(query: &'a str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> { + | ++++ ++ ++ ++ + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0106`. +error: could not compile `minigrep` (lib) due to 1 previous error ``` Rust can’t possibly know which of the two arguments we need, so we need to tell @@ -1085,15 +1124,16 @@ syntax. Other programming languages don’t require you to connect arguments to return values in the signature, but this practice will get easier over time. You might -want to compare this example with the examples in “Validating References with -Lifetimes” on page XX. +want to compare this example with the examples in the “Validating References +with Lifetimes” section +in Chapter 10. Now let’s run the test: ``` $ cargo test Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.97s + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.97s Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) running 1 test @@ -1102,19 +1142,19 @@ test tests::one_result ... FAILED failures: ---- tests::one_result stdout ---- -thread 'tests::one_result' panicked at 'assertion failed: `(left == right)` - left: `["safe, fast, productive."]`, - right: `[]`', src/lib.rs:47:9 +thread 'tests::one_result' panicked at src/lib.rs:44:9: +assertion `left == right` failed + left: ["safe, fast, productive."] + right: [] note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace failures: tests::one_result -test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; -finished in 0.00s +test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s -error: test failed, to rerun pass '--lib' +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` Great, the test fails, exactly as we expected. Let’s get the test to pass! @@ -1132,31 +1172,29 @@ that and implement `search`, our program needs to follow these steps: Let’s work through each step, starting with iterating through lines. -#### Iterating Through Lines with the lines Method +#### Iterating Through Lines with the `lines` Method Rust has a helpful method to handle line-by-line iteration of strings, conveniently named `lines`, that works as shown in Listing 12-17. Note that this won’t compile yet. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -pub fn search<'a>( - query: &str, - contents: &'a str, -) -> Vec<&'a str> { +pub fn search<'a>(query: &str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> { for line in contents.lines() { // do something with line } } ``` -Listing 12-17: Iterating through each line in `contents` +Listing 12-17: Iterating through each line in contents The `lines` method returns an iterator. We’ll talk about iterators in depth in -Chapter 13, but recall that you saw this way of using an iterator in Listing -3-5, where we used a `for` loop with an iterator to run some code on each item -in a collection. +Chapter 13, but recall that you saw this way +of using an iterator in Listing 3-5, where we used a +`for` loop with an iterator to run some code on each item in a collection. #### Searching Each Line for the Query @@ -1165,13 +1203,11 @@ Fortunately, strings have a helpful method named `contains` that does this for us! Add a call to the `contains` method in the `search` function, as shown in Listing 12-18. Note that this still won’t compile yet. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -pub fn search<'a>( - query: &str, - contents: &'a str, -) -> Vec<&'a str> { +pub fn search<'a>(query: &str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> { for line in contents.lines() { if line.contains(query) { // do something with line @@ -1180,8 +1216,7 @@ pub fn search<'a>( } ``` -Listing 12-18: Adding functionality to see whether the line contains the string -in `query` +Listing 12-18: Adding functionality to see whether the line contains the string in query At the moment, we’re building up functionality. To get the code to compile, we need to return a value from the body as we indicated we would in the function @@ -1194,13 +1229,11 @@ to return. For that, we can make a mutable vector before the `for` loop and call the `push` method to store a `line` in the vector. After the `for` loop, we return the vector, as shown in Listing 12-19. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -pub fn search<'a>( - query: &str, - contents: &'a str, -) -> Vec<&'a str> { +pub fn search<'a>(query: &str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> { let mut results = Vec::new(); for line in contents.lines() { @@ -1220,12 +1253,27 @@ and our test should pass. Let’s run the test: ``` $ cargo test ---snip-- + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.22s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) + running 1 test test tests::one_result ... ok -test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Running unittests src/main.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests minigrep + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` Our test passed, so we know it works! @@ -1234,10 +1282,10 @@ At this point, we could consider opportunities for refactoring the implementation of the search function while keeping the tests passing to maintain the same functionality. The code in the search function isn’t too bad, but it doesn’t take advantage of some useful features of iterators. We’ll -return to this example in Chapter 13, where we’ll explore iterators in detail, -and look at how to improve it. +return to this example in Chapter 13, where +we’ll explore iterators in detail, and look at how to improve it. -#### Using the search Function in the run Function +#### Using the `search` Function in the `run` Function Now that the `search` function is working and tested, we need to call `search` from our `run` function. We need to pass the `config.query` value and the @@ -1266,7 +1314,7 @@ should return exactly one line from the Emily Dickinson poem: *frog*. ``` $ cargo run -- frog poem.txt Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.38s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.38s Running `target/debug/minigrep frog poem.txt` How public, like a frog ``` @@ -1275,7 +1323,8 @@ Cool! Now let’s try a word that will match multiple lines, like *body*: ``` $ cargo run -- body poem.txt - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep body poem.txt` I'm nobody! Who are you? Are you nobody, too? @@ -1287,7 +1336,8 @@ word that isn’t anywhere in the poem, such as *monomorphization*: ``` $ cargo run -- monomorphization poem.txt - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep monomorphization poem.txt` ``` @@ -1308,7 +1358,7 @@ users enter it each time they want it to apply, but by instead making it an environment variable, we allow our users to set the environment variable once and have all their searches be case insensitive in that terminal session. -### Writing a Failing Test for the Case-Insensitive search Function +### Writing a Failing Test for the Case-Insensitive `search` Function We first add a new `search_case_insensitive` function that will be called when the environment variable has a value. We’ll continue to follow the TDD process, @@ -1317,6 +1367,7 @@ the new `search_case_insensitive` function and rename our old test from `one_result` to `case_sensitive` to clarify the differences between the two tests, as shown in Listing 12-20. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` @@ -1333,10 +1384,7 @@ safe, fast, productive. Pick three. Duct tape."; - assert_eq!( - vec!["safe, fast, productive."], - search(query, contents) - ); + assert_eq!(vec!["safe, fast, productive."], search(query, contents)); } #[test] @@ -1356,8 +1404,7 @@ Trust me."; } ``` -Listing 12-20: Adding a new failing test for the case-insensitive function -we’re about to add +Listing 12-20: Adding a new failing test for the case-insensitive function we’re about to add Note that we’ve edited the old test’s `contents` too. We’ve added a new line with the text `"Duct tape."` using a capital *D* that shouldn’t match the query @@ -1375,13 +1422,14 @@ the `search_case_insensitive` function. Feel free to add a skeleton implementation that always returns an empty vector, similar to the way we did for the `search` function in Listing 12-16 to see the test compile and fail. -### Implementing the search_case_insensitive Function +### Implementing the `search_case_insensitive` Function The `search_case_insensitive` function, shown in Listing 12-21, will be almost the same as the `search` function. The only difference is that we’ll lowercase the `query` and each `line` so that whatever the case of the input arguments, they’ll be the same case when we check whether the line contains the query. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` @@ -1389,11 +1437,11 @@ pub fn search_case_insensitive<'a>( query: &str, contents: &'a str, ) -> Vec<&'a str> { - 1 let query = query.to_lowercase(); + let query = query.to_lowercase(); let mut results = Vec::new(); for line in contents.lines() { - if 2 line.to_lowercase().contains(3 &query) { + if line.to_lowercase().contains(&query) { results.push(line); } } @@ -1402,11 +1450,10 @@ pub fn search_case_insensitive<'a>( } ``` -Listing 12-21: Defining the `search_case_insensitive` function to lowercase the -query and the line before comparing them +Listing 12-21: Defining the search_case_insensitive function to lowercase the query and the line before comparing them First we lowercase the `query` string and store it in a shadowed variable with -the same name [1]. Calling `to_lowercase` on the query is necessary so that no +the same name. Calling `to_lowercase` on the query is necessary so that no matter whether the user’s query is `"rust"`, `"RUST"`, `"Rust"`, or `"rUsT"`, we’ll treat the query as if it were `"rust"` and be insensitive to the case. While `to_lowercase` will handle basic Unicode, it won’t be 100% accurate. If @@ -1419,22 +1466,39 @@ Note that `query` is now a `String` rather than a string slice because calling query is `"rUsT"`, as an example: that string slice doesn’t contain a lowercase `u` or `t` for us to use, so we have to allocate a new `String` containing `"rust"`. When we pass `query` as an argument to the `contains` method now, we -need to add an ampersand [3] because the signature of `contains` is defined to -take a string slice. +need to add an ampersand because the signature of `contains` is defined to take +a string slice. Next, we add a call to `to_lowercase` on each `line` to lowercase all -characters [2]. Now that we’ve converted `line` and `query` to lowercase, we’ll +characters. Now that we’ve converted `line` and `query` to lowercase, we’ll find matches no matter what the case of the query is. Let’s see if this implementation passes the tests: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.33s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) + running 2 tests test tests::case_insensitive ... ok test tests::case_sensitive ... ok -test result: ok. 2 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 -filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 2 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Running unittests src/main.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests minigrep + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` Great! They passed. Now, let’s call the new `search_case_insensitive` function @@ -1458,6 +1522,7 @@ function to check the `ignore_case` field’s value and use that to decide whether to call the `search` function or the `search_case_insensitive` function, as shown in Listing 12-22. This still won’t compile yet. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` @@ -1478,8 +1543,7 @@ pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { } ``` -Listing 12-22: Calling either `search` or `search_case_insensitive` based on -the value in `config.ignore_case` +Listing 12-22: Calling either search or search_case_insensitive based on the value in config.ignore_case Finally, we need to check for the environment variable. The functions for working with environment variables are in the `env` module in the standard @@ -1488,16 +1552,15 @@ we’ll use the `var` function from the `env` module to check to see if any valu has been set for an environment variable named `IGNORE_CASE`, as shown in Listing 12-23. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` use std::env; ---snip-- +// --snip-- impl Config { - pub fn build( - args: &[String] - ) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } @@ -1516,8 +1579,7 @@ impl Config { } ``` -Listing 12-23: Checking for any value in an environment variable named -`IGNORE_CASE` +Listing 12-23: Checking for any value in an environment variable named IGNORE_CASE Here, we create a new variable, `ignore_case`. To set its value, we call the `env::var` function and pass it the name of the `IGNORE_CASE` environment @@ -1545,14 +1607,14 @@ the word *to* in all lowercase: ``` $ cargo run -- to poem.txt Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep to poem.txt` Are you nobody, too? How dreary to be somebody! ``` Looks like that still works! Now let’s run the program with `IGNORE_CASE` set -to `1` but with the same query `to`: +to `1` but with the same query *to*: ``` $ IGNORE_CASE=1 cargo run -- to poem.txt @@ -1574,6 +1636,12 @@ PS> Remove-Item Env:IGNORE_CASE We should get lines that contain *to* that might have uppercase letters: + + ``` Are you nobody, too? How dreary to be somebody! @@ -1653,6 +1721,7 @@ the `eprintln!` macro that prints to the standard error stream, so let’s chang the two places we were calling `println!` to print errors to use `eprintln!` instead. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` @@ -1671,8 +1740,7 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 12-24: Writing error messages to standard error instead of standard -output using `eprintln!` +Listing 12-24: Writing error messages to standard error instead of standard output using eprintln! Let’s now run the program again in the same way, without any arguments and redirecting standard output with `>`: @@ -1717,4 +1785,3 @@ well tested. Next, we’ll explore some Rust features that were influenced by functional languages: closures and iterators. - diff --git a/nostarch/chapter17.md b/nostarch/chapter17.md index 946d20a11..225b0a8a4 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter17.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter17.md @@ -1,1233 +1,3025 @@ - +## Async and Await + +Many operations we ask the computer to do can take a while to finish. For +example, if you used a video editor to create a video of a family celebration, +exporting it could take anywhere from minutes to hours. Similarly, downloading a +video shared by someone in your family might take a long time. It would be nice +if we could do something else while we are waiting for those long-running +processes to complete. + +The video export will use as much CPU and GPU power as it can. If you only had +one CPU core, and your operating system never paused that export until it +completed, you couldn’t do anything else on your computer while it was running. +That would be a pretty frustrating experience, though. Instead, your computer’s +operating system can—and does!—invisibly interrupt the export often enough to +let you get other work done along the way. + +The file download is different. It does not take up very much CPU time. Instead, +the CPU needs to wait on data to arrive from the network. While you can start +reading the data once some of it is present, it might take a while for the rest +to show up. Even once the data is all present, a video can be quite large, so it +might take some time to load it all. Maybe it only takes a second or two—but +that’s a very long time for a modern processor, which can do billions of +operations every second. It would be nice to be able to put the CPU to use for +other work while waiting for the network call to finish—so, again, your +operating system will invisibly interrupt your program so other things can +happen while the network operation is still ongoing. + +> Note: The video export is the kind of operation which is often described as +> “CPU-bound” or “compute-bound”. It’s limited by the speed of the computer’s +> ability to process data within the *CPU* or *GPU*, and how much of that speed +> it can use. The video download is the kind of operation which is often +> described as “IO-bound,” because it’s limited by the speed of the computer’s +> *input and output*. It can only go as fast as the data can be sent across the +> network. + +In both of these examples, the operating system’s invisible interrupts provide a +form of concurrency. That concurrency only happens at the level of a whole +program, though: the operating system interrupts one program to let other +programs get work done. In many cases, because we understand our programs at a +much more granular level than the operating system does, we can spot lots of +opportunities for concurrency that the operating system cannot see. + +For example, if we’re building a tool to manage file downloads, we should be +able to write our program in such a way that starting one download does not lock +up the UI, and users should be able to start multiple downloads at the same +time. Many operating system APIs for interacting with the network are +*blocking*, though. That is, these APIs block the program’s progress until the +data that they are processing is completely ready. + +> Note: This is how *most* function calls work, if you think about it! However, +> we normally reserve the term “blocking” for function calls which interact with +> files, the network, or other resources on the computer, because those are the +> places where an individual program would benefit from the operation being +> *non*-blocking. + +We could avoid blocking our main thread by spawning a dedicated thread to +download each file. However, we would eventually find that the overhead of those +threads was a problem. It would also be nicer if the call were not blocking in +the first place. Last but not least, it would be better if we could write in the +same direct style we use in blocking code. Something similar to this: -[TOC] +``` +let data = fetch_data_from(url).await; +println!("{data}"); +``` + +That is exactly what Rust’s async abstraction gives us. Before we see how this +works in practice, though, we need to take a short detour into the differences +between parallelism and concurrency. + +### Parallelism and Concurrency + +In the “Fearless Concurrency” chapter on page XX, we treated parallelism and +concurrency as mostly interchangeable. Now we need to distinguish between them +more precisely, because the differences will show up as we start working. + +Consider the different ways a team could split up work on a software project. We +could assign a single individual multiple tasks, or we could assign one task per +team member, or we could do a mix of both approaches. + +When an individual works on several different tasks before any of them is +complete, this is *concurrency*. Maybe you have two different projects checked +out on your computer, and when you get bored or stuck on one project, you switch +to the other. You’re just one person, so you can’t make progress on both tasks +at the exact same time—but you can multi-task, making progress on multiple +tasks by switching between them. + +Concurrent work flow + +Figure 17-1: A concurrent workflow, switching between Task A and Task B. + +When you agree to split up a group of tasks between the people on the team, with +each person taking one task and working on it alone, this is *parallelism*. Each +person on the team can make progress at the exact same time. + +Concurrent work flow + +Figure 17-2: A parallel workflow, where work happens on Task A and Task B +independently. -# Object-Oriented Programming Features - -Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a way of modeling programs. Objects as a -programmatic concept were introduced in the programming language Simula in the -1960s. Those objects influenced Alan Kay’s programming architecture in which -objects pass messages to each other. To describe this architecture, he coined -the term *object-oriented programming* in 1967. Many competing definitions -describe what OOP is, and by some of these definitions Rust is object oriented -but by others it is not. In this chapter, we’ll explore certain characteristics -that are commonly considered object oriented and how those characteristics -translate to idiomatic Rust. We’ll then show you how to implement an -object-oriented design pattern in Rust and discuss the trade-offs of doing so -versus implementing a solution using some of Rust’s strengths instead. - -## Characteristics of Object-Oriented Languages - -There is no consensus in the programming community about what features a -language must have to be considered object oriented. Rust is influenced by many -programming paradigms, including OOP; for example, we explored the features -that came from functional programming in Chapter 13. Arguably, OOP languages -share certain common characteristics, namely objects, encapsulation, and -inheritance. Let’s look at what each of those characteristics means and whether -Rust supports it. - -### Objects Contain Data and Behavior - -The book *Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software* by -Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, and John Vlissides (Addison-Wesley, -1994), colloquially referred to as *The Gang of Four* book, is a catalog of -object-oriented design patterns. It defines OOP in this way: - -Object-oriented programs are made up of objects. An *object* packages both data -and the procedures that operate on that data. The procedures are typically -called *methods* or *operations*. - -Using this definition, Rust is object oriented: structs and enums have data, -and `impl` blocks provide methods on structs and enums. Even though structs and -enums with methods aren’t *called* objects, they provide the same -functionality, according to the Gang of Four’s definition of objects. - -### Encapsulation That Hides Implementation Details - -Another aspect commonly associated with OOP is the idea of *encapsulation*, -which means that the implementation details of an object aren’t accessible to -code using that object. Therefore, the only way to interact with an object is -through its public API; code using the object shouldn’t be able to reach into -the object’s internals and change data or behavior directly. This enables the -programmer to change and refactor an object’s internals without needing to -change the code that uses the object. - -We discussed how to control encapsulation in Chapter 7: we can use the `pub` -keyword to decide which modules, types, functions, and methods in our code -should be public, and by default everything else is private. For example, we -can define a struct `AveragedCollection` that has a field containing a vector -of `i32` values. The struct can also have a field that contains the average of -the values in the vector, meaning the average doesn’t have to be computed on -demand whenever anyone needs it. In other words, `AveragedCollection` will -cache the calculated average for us. Listing 17-1 has the definition of the -`AveragedCollection` struct. - -Filename: src/lib.rs - -``` -pub struct AveragedCollection { - list: Vec, - average: f64, +With both of these situations, you might have to coordinate between different +tasks. Maybe you *thought* the task that one person was working on was totally +independent from everyone else’s work, but it actually needs something finished +by another person on the team. Some of the work could be done in parallel, but +some of it was actually *serial*: it could only happen in a series, one thing +after the other, as in Figure 17-3. + +Concurrent work flow + +Figure 17-3: A partially parallel workflow, where work happens on Task A and Task B independently until task A3 is blocked on the results of task B3. + +Likewise, you might realize that one of your own tasks depends on another of +your tasks. Now your concurrent work has also become serial. + +Parallelism and concurrency can intersect with each other, too. If you learn +that a colleague is stuck until you finish one of your tasks, you’ll probably +focus all your efforts on that task to “unblock” your colleague. You and your +coworker are no longer able to work in parallel, and you’re also no longer able +to work concurrently on your own tasks. + +The same basic dynamics come into play with software and hardware. On a machine +with a single CPU core, the CPU can only do one operation at a time, but it can +still work concurrently. Using tools such as threads, processes, and async, the +computer can pause one activity and switch to others before eventually cycling +back to that first activity again. On a machine with multiple CPU cores, it can +also do work in parallel. One core can be doing one thing while another core +does something completely unrelated, and those actually happen at the same +time. + +When working with async in Rust, we’re always dealing with concurrency. +Depending on the hardware, the operating system, and the async runtime we are +using—more on async runtimes shortly!—that concurrency may also use parallelism +under the hood. + +Now, let’s dive into how async programming in Rust actually works! In the rest +of this chapter, we will: + +* see how to use Rust’s `async` and `await` syntax +* explore how to use the async model to solve some of the same challenges we + looked at in Chapter 16 +* look at how multithreading and async provide complementary solutions, which + you can even use together in many cases + +## Futures and the Async Syntax + +The key elements of asynchronous programming in Rust are *futures* and Rust’s +`async` and `await` keywords. + +A *future* is a value which may not be ready now, but will become ready at some +point in the future. (This same concept shows up in many languages, sometimes +under other names such as “task” or “promise”.) Rust provides a `Future` trait +as a building block so different async operations can be implemented with +different data structures, but with a common interface. In Rust, we say that +types which implement the `Future` trait are futures. Each type which +implements `Future` holds its own information about the progress that has been +made and what “ready” means. + +The `async` keyword can be applied to blocks and functions to specify that they +can be interrupted and resumed. Within an async block or async function, you can +use the `await` keyword to wait for a future to become ready, called *awaiting a +future*. Each place you await a future within an async block or function is a +place that async block or function may get paused and resumed. The process of +checking with a future to see if its value is available yet is called *polling*. + +Some other languages also use `async` and `await` keywords for async +programming. If you’re familiar with those languages, you may notice some +significant differences in how Rust does things, including how it handles the +syntax. That’s for good reason, as we’ll see! + +Most of the time when writing async Rust, we use the `async` and `await` +keywords. Rust compiles them into equivalent code using the `Future` trait, much +as it compiles `for` loops into equivalent code using the `Iterator` trait. +Because Rust provides the `Future` trait, though, you can also implement it for +your own data types when you need to. Many of the functions we’ll see +throughout this chapter return types with their own implementations of `Future`. +We’ll return to the definition of the trait at the end of the chapter and dig +into more of how it works, but this is enough detail to keep us moving forward. + +That may all feel a bit abstract. Let’s write our first async program: a little +web scraper. We’ll pass in two URLs from the command line, fetch both of them +concurrently, and return the result of whichever one finishes first. This +example will have a fair bit of new syntax, but don’t worry. We’ll explain +everything you need to know as we go. + +### Our First Async Program + +To keep this chapter focused on learning async, rather than juggling parts of +the ecosystem, we have created the `trpl` crate (`trpl` is short for “The Rust +Programming Language”). It re-exports all the types, traits, and functions +you’ll need, primarily from the `futures` and `tokio` crates, available on +*https://crates.io*. + +* The `futures` crate is an official home for Rust experimentation for async + code, and is actually where the `Future` type was originally designed. + +* Tokio is the most widely used async runtime in Rust today, especially (but + not only!) for web applications. There are other great runtimes out there, + and they may be more suitable for your purposes. We use Tokio under the hood + for `trpl` because it’s well-tested and widely used. + +In some cases, `trpl` also renames or wraps the original APIs to let us stay +focused on the details relevant to this chapter. If you want to understand what +the crate does, we encourage you to check out its source code at +*https://github.com/rust-lang/book/tree/main/packages/trpl*. +You’ll be able to see what crate each re-export comes from, and we’ve left +extensive comments explaining what the crate does. + +Create a new binary project named `hello-async` and add the `trpl` crate as a +dependency: + +``` +$ cargo new hello-async +$ cd hello-async +$ cargo add trpl +``` + +Now we can use the various pieces provided by `trpl` to write our first async +program. We’ll build a little command line tool which fetches two web pages, +pulls the `` element from each, and prints out the title of whichever +finishes that whole process first. + +Let’s start by writing a function that takes one page URL as a parameter, makes +a request to it, and returns the text of the title element: + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use trpl::Html; + +async fn page_title(url: &str) -> Option<String> { + let response = trpl::get(url).await; + let response_text = response.text().await; + Html::parse(&response_text) + .select_first("title") + .map(|title_element| title_element.inner_html()) } ``` -Listing 17-1: An `AveragedCollection` struct that maintains a list of integers -and the average of the items in the collection +Listing 17-1: Defining an async function to get the title element from an HTML page + +In Listing 17-1, we define a function named `page_title`, and we mark it with +the `async` keyword. Then we use the `trpl::get` function to fetch whatever URL +is passed in, and, and we await the response by using the `await` keyword. Then +we get the text of the response by calling its `text` method and once again +awaiting it with the `await` keyword. Both of these steps are asynchronous. For +`get`, we need to wait for the server to send back the first part of its +response, which will include HTTP headers, cookies, and so on. That part of the +response can be delivered separately from the body of the request. Especially if +the body is very large, it can take some time for it all to arrive. Thus, we +have to wait for the *entirety* of the response to arrive, so the `text` method +is also async. + +We have to explicitly await both of these futures, because futures in Rust are +*lazy*: they don’t do anything until you ask them to with `await`. (In fact, +Rust will show a compiler warning if you don’t use a future.) This should +remind you of our discussion of iterators back in the “Processing a Series of +Items with Iterators” section of Chapter 13 on page XX. Iterators do nothing +unless you call their `next` method—whether directly, or using `for` loops or +methods such as `map` which use `next` under the hood. With futures, the same +basic idea applies: they do nothing unless you explicitly ask them to. This +laziness allows Rust to avoid running async code until it’s actually needed. + +> Note: This is different from the behavior we saw when using `thread::spawn` in +> the “Creating a New Thread with `spawn`” section of Chapter 16 on page XX, +> where the closure we passed to another thread started running immediately. +> It’s also different from how many other languages approach async! But it’s +> important for Rust. We’ll see why that is later. + +Once we have `response_text`, we can then parse it into an instance of the +`Html` type using `Html::parse`. Instead of a raw string, we now have a data +type we can use to work with the HTML as a richer data structure. In particular, +we can use the `select_first` method to find the first instance of a given CSS +selector. By passing the string `"title"`, we’ll get the first `<title>` +element in the document, if there is one. Because there may not be any matching +element, `select_first` returns an `Option<ElementRef>`. Finally, we use the +`Option::map` method, which lets us work with the item in the `Option` if it’s +present, and do nothing if it isn’t. (We could also use a `match` expression +here, but `map` is more idiomatic.) In the body of the function we supply to +`map`, we call `inner_html` on the `title_element` to get its content, which is +a `String`. When all is said and done, we have an `Option<String>`. + +Notice that Rust’s `await` keyword goes after the expression you’re awaiting, +not before it. That is, it’s a *postfix keyword*. This may be different from +what you might be used to if you have used async in other languages. Rust chose +this because it makes chains of methods much nicer to work with. As a result, we +can change the body of `page_url_for` to chain the `trpl::get` and `text` +function calls together with `await` between them, as shown in Listing 17-2: + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` + let response_text = trpl::get(url).await.text().await; +``` + +Listing 17-2: Chaining with the `await` keyword + +With that, we have successfully written our first async function! Before we add +some code in `main` to call it, let’s talk a little more about what we’ve +written and what it means. -The struct is marked `pub` so that other code can use it, but the fields within -the struct remain private. This is important in this case because we want to -ensure that whenever a value is added or removed from the list, the average is -also updated. We do this by implementing `add`, `remove`, and `average` methods -on the struct, as shown in Listing 17-2. +When Rust sees a block marked with the `async` keyword, it compiles it into a +unique, anonymous data type which implements the `Future` trait. When Rust sees +a function marked with `async`, it compiles it into a non-async function whose +body is an async block. An async function’s return type is the type of the of +the anonymous data type the compiler creates for that async block. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Thus, writing `async fn` is equivalent to writing a function which returns a +*future* of the return type. When the compiler sees a function definition such +as the `async fn page_title` in Listing 17-1, it’s equivalent to a non-async +function defined like this: ``` -impl AveragedCollection { - pub fn add(&mut self, value: i32) { - self.list.push(value); - self.update_average(); +use std::future::Future; +use trpl::Html; + +fn page_title(url: &str) -> impl Future<Output = Option<String>> + '_ { + async move { + let text = trpl::get(url).await.text().await; + Html::parse(&text) + .select_first("title") + .map(|title| title.inner_html()) } +} +``` - pub fn remove(&mut self) -> Option<i32> { - let result = self.list.pop(); - match result { - Some(value) => { - self.update_average(); - Some(value) - } - None => None, - } - } +Let’s walk through each part of the transformed version: + +* It uses the `impl Trait` syntax we discussed back in the “Traits as + Parameters” section in Chapter 10 on page XX. +* The returned trait is a `Future`, with an associated type of `Output`. Notice + that the `Output` type is `Option<String>`, which is the same as the the + original return type from the `async fn` version of `page_title`. +* All of the code called in the body of the original function is wrapped in an + `async move` block. Remember that blocks are expressions. This whole block is + the expression returned from the function. +* This async block produces a value with the type `Option<String>`, as described + above. That value matches the `Output` type in the return type. This is just + like other blocks you have seen. +* The new function body is an `async move` block because of how it uses the + `url` parameter. (We’ll talk about `async` vs. `async move` much more later + in the chapter.) +* The new version of the function has a kind of lifetime we haven’t seen before + in the output type: `'_`. Because the function returns a `Future` which refers + to a reference—in this case, the reference from the `url` parameter—we need to + tell Rust that we mean for that reference to be included. We don’t have to + name the lifetime here, because Rust is smart enough to know there is only one + reference which could be involved, but we *do* have to be explicit that the + resulting `Future` is bound by that lifetime. + +Now we can call `page_title` in `main`. To start, we’ll just get the title for +a single page. In Listing 17-3, we follow the same pattern we used for getting +command line arguments back in the “Accepting Command Line Arguments” section +of Chapter 12 on page XX. Then we pass the first URL `page_title`, and await +the result. Because the value produced by the future is an `Option<String>`, we +use a `match` expression to print different messages to account for whether the +page had a `<title>`. - pub fn average(&self) -> f64 { - self.average - } +Filename: src/main.rs - fn update_average(&mut self) { - let total: i32 = self.list.iter().sum(); - self.average = total as f64 / self.list.len() as f64; +``` +async fn main() { + let args: Vec<String> = std::env::args().collect(); + let url = &args[1]; + match page_title(url).await { + Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"), + None => println!("{url} had no title"), } } ``` -Listing 17-2: Implementations of the public methods `add`, `remove`, and -`average` on `AveragedCollection` - -The public methods `add`, `remove`, and `average` are the only ways to access -or modify data in an instance of `AveragedCollection`. When an item is added to -`list` using the `add` method or removed using the `remove` method, the -implementations of each call the private `update_average` method that handles -updating the `average` field as well. - -We leave the `list` and `average` fields private so there is no way for -external code to add or remove items to or from the `list` field directly; -otherwise, the `average` field might become out of sync when the `list` -changes. The `average` method returns the value in the `average` field, -allowing external code to read the `average` but not modify it. - -Because we’ve encapsulated the implementation details of the struct -`AveragedCollection`, we can easily change aspects, such as the data structure, -in the future. For instance, we could use a `HashSet<i32>` instead of a -`Vec<i32>` for the `list` field. As long as the signatures of the `add`, -`remove`, and `average` public methods stayed the same, code using -`AveragedCollection` wouldn’t need to change. If we made `list` public instead, -this wouldn’t necessarily be the case: `HashSet<i32>` and `Vec<i32>` have -different methods for adding and removing items, so the external code would -likely have to change if it were modifying `list` directly. - -If encapsulation is a required aspect for a language to be considered object -oriented, then Rust meets that requirement. The option to use `pub` or not for -different parts of code enables encapsulation of implementation details. - -### Inheritance as a Type System and as Code Sharing - -*Inheritance* is a mechanism whereby an object can inherit elements from -another object’s definition, thus gaining the parent object’s data and behavior -without you having to define them again. - -If a language must have inheritance to be object oriented, then Rust is not -such a language. There is no way to define a struct that inherits the parent -struct’s fields and method implementations without using a macro. - -However, if you’re used to having inheritance in your programming toolbox, you -can use other solutions in Rust, depending on your reason for reaching for -inheritance in the first place. - -You would choose inheritance for two main reasons. One is for reuse of code: -you can implement particular behavior for one type, and inheritance enables you -to reuse that implementation for a different type. You can do this in a limited -way in Rust code using default trait method implementations, which you saw in -Listing 10-14 when we added a default implementation of the `summarize` method -on the `Summary` trait. Any type implementing the `Summary` trait would have -the `summarize` method available on it without any further code. This is -similar to a parent class having an implementation of a method and an -inheriting child class also having the implementation of the method. We can -also override the default implementation of the `summarize` method when we -implement the `Summary` trait, which is similar to a child class overriding the -implementation of a method inherited from a parent class. - -The other reason to use inheritance relates to the type system: to enable a -child type to be used in the same places as the parent type. This is also -called *polymorphism*, which means that you can substitute multiple objects for -each other at runtime if they share certain characteristics. - -> ### Polymorphism -> -> To many people, polymorphism is synonymous with inheritance. But it’s -actually a more general concept that refers to code that can work with data of -multiple types. For inheritance, those types are generally subclasses. -> -> Rust instead uses generics to abstract over different possible types and -trait bounds to impose constraints on what those types must provide. This is -sometimes called *bounded parametric polymorphism*. - -Inheritance has recently fallen out of favor as a programming design solution -in many programming languages because it’s often at risk of sharing more code -than necessary. Subclasses shouldn’t always share all characteristics of their -parent class but will do so with inheritance. This can make a program’s design -less flexible. It also introduces the possibility of calling methods on -subclasses that don’t make sense or that cause errors because the methods don’t -apply to the subclass. In addition, some languages will only allow single -inheritance (meaning a subclass can only inherit from one class), further -restricting the flexibility of a program’s design. - -For these reasons, Rust takes the different approach of using trait objects -instead of inheritance. Let’s look at how trait objects enable polymorphism in -Rust. - -## Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types - -In Chapter 8, we mentioned that one limitation of vectors is that they can -store elements of only one type. We created a workaround in Listing 8-9 where -we defined a `SpreadsheetCell` enum that had variants to hold integers, floats, -and text. This meant we could store different types of data in each cell and -still have a vector that represented a row of cells. This is a perfectly good -solution when our interchangeable items are a fixed set of types that we know -when our code is compiled. - -However, sometimes we want our library user to be able to extend the set of -types that are valid in a particular situation. To show how we might achieve -this, we’ll create an example graphical user interface (GUI) tool that iterates -through a list of items, calling a `draw` method on each one to draw it to the -screen—a common technique for GUI tools. We’ll create a library crate called -`gui` that contains the structure of a GUI library. This crate might include -some types for people to use, such as `Button` or `TextField`. In addition, -`gui` users will want to create their own types that can be drawn: for -instance, one programmer might add an `Image` and another might add a -`SelectBox`. - -We won’t implement a full-fledged GUI library for this example but will show -how the pieces would fit together. At the time of writing the library, we can’t -know and define all the types other programmers might want to create. But we do -know that `gui` needs to keep track of many values of different types, and it -needs to call a `draw` method on each of these differently typed values. It -doesn’t need to know exactly what will happen when we call the `draw` method, -just that the value will have that method available for us to call. - -To do this in a language with inheritance, we might define a class named -`Component` that has a method named `draw` on it. The other classes, such as -`Button`, `Image`, and `SelectBox`, would inherit from `Component` and thus -inherit the `draw` method. They could each override the `draw` method to define -their custom behavior, but the framework could treat all of the types as if -they were `Component` instances and call `draw` on them. But because Rust -doesn’t have inheritance, we need another way to structure the `gui` library to -allow users to extend it with new types. - -### Defining a Trait for Common Behavior - -To implement the behavior we want `gui` to have, we’ll define a trait named -`Draw` that will have one method named `draw`. Then we can define a vector that -takes a *trait object*. A trait object points to both an instance of a type -implementing our specified trait and a table used to look up trait methods on -that type at runtime. We create a trait object by specifying some sort of -pointer, such as a `&` reference or a `Box<T>` smart pointer, then the `dyn` -keyword, and then specifying the relevant trait. (We’ll talk about the reason -trait objects must use a pointer in “Dynamically Sized Types and the Sized -Trait” on page XX.) We can use trait objects in place of a generic or concrete -type. Wherever we use a trait object, Rust’s type system will ensure at compile -time that any value used in that context will implement the trait object’s -trait. Consequently, we don’t need to know all the possible types at compile -time. +Listing 17-3: Calling the `page_title` function from `main` with a +user-supplied argument -We’ve mentioned that, in Rust, we refrain from calling structs and enums -“objects” to distinguish them from other languages’ objects. In a struct or -enum, the data in the struct fields and the behavior in `impl` blocks are -separated, whereas in other languages, the data and behavior combined into one -concept is often labeled an object. However, trait objects *are* more like -objects in other languages in the sense that they combine data and behavior. -But trait objects differ from traditional objects in that we can’t add data to -a trait object. Trait objects aren’t as generally useful as objects in other -languages: their specific purpose is to allow abstraction across common -behavior. +Unfortunately, this doesn’t compile. The only place we can use the `await` +keyword is in async functions or blocks, and Rust won’t let us mark the +special `main` function as `async`. -Listing 17-3 shows how to define a trait named `Draw` with one method named -`draw`. +``` +error[E0752]: `main` function is not allowed to be `async` + --> src/main.rs:6:1 + | +6 | async fn main() { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `main` function is not allowed to be `async` +``` + +The reason `main` can’t be marked `async` is that async code needs a *runtime*: +a Rust crate which manages the details of executing asynchronous code. A +program’s `main` function can *initialize* a runtime, but it’s not a runtime +*itself*. (We’ll see more about why this is a bit later.) Every Rust program +that executes async code has at least one place where it sets up a runtime and +executes the futures. + +Most languages which support async bundle a runtime with the language. Rust does +not. Instead, there are many different async runtimes available, each of which +makes different tradeoffs suitable to the use case they target. For example, a +high-throughput web server with many CPU cores and a large amount of RAM has +very different different needs than a microcontroller with a single core, a +small amount of RAM, and no ability to do heap allocations. The crates which +provide those runtimes also often supply async versions of common functionality +such as file or network I/O. + +Here, and throughout the rest of this chapter, we’ll use the `run` function +from the `trpl` crate, which takes a future as an argument and runs it to +completion. Behind the scenes, calling `run` sets up a runtime to use to run the +future passed in. Once the future completes, `run` returns whatever value the +future produced. + +We could pass the future returned by `page_title` directly to `run`. Once it +completed, we would be able to match on the resulting `Option<String>`, the way +we tried to do in Listing 17-3. However, for most of the examples in the chapter +(and most async code in the real world!), we’ll be doing more than just one +async function call, so instead we’ll pass an `async` block and explicitly +await the result of calling `page_title`, as in Listing 17-4. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -pub trait Draw { - fn draw(&self); +fn main() { + let args: Vec<String> = std::env::args().collect(); + + trpl::run(async { + let url = &args[1]; + match page_title(url).await { + Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"), + None => println!("{url} had no title"), + } + }) } ``` -Listing 17-3: Definition of the `Draw` trait +Listing 17-4: Awaiting an async block with `trpl::run` + +When we run this, we get the behavior we might have expected initially: -This syntax should look familiar from our discussions on how to define traits -in Chapter 10. Next comes some new syntax: Listing 17-4 defines a struct named -`Screen` that holds a vector named `components`. This vector is of type -`Box<dyn Draw>`, which is a trait object; it’s a stand-in for any type inside a -`Box` that implements the `Draw` trait. +``` +$ cargo run "http://www.rust-lang.org" +The title for http://www.rust-lang.org was + Rust Programming Language +``` -Filename: src/lib.rs +Phew: we finally have some working async code! This now compiles, and we can run +it. Before we add code to race two sites against each other, let’s briefly turn +our attention back to how futures work. + +Each *await point*—that is, every place where the code uses the `await` +keyword—represents a place where control gets handed back to the runtime. To +make that work, Rust needs to keep track of the state involved in the async +block, so that the runtime can kick off some other work and then come back when +it’s ready to try advancing this one again. This is an invisible state machine, +as if you wrote an enum in this way to save the current state at each `await` +point: ``` -pub struct Screen { - pub components: Vec<Box<dyn Draw>>, +enum PageTitleFuture<'a> { + Initial { url: &'a str }, + GetAwaitPoint { url: &'a str }, + TextAwaitPoint { response: trpl::Response }, } ``` -Listing 17-4: Definition of the `Screen` struct with a `components` field -holding a vector of trait objects that implement the `Draw` trait - -On the `Screen` struct, we’ll define a method named `run` that will call the -`draw` method on each of its `components`, as shown in Listing 17-5. +Writing the code to transition between each state by hand would be tedious and +error-prone, especially when adding more functionality and more states to the +code later. Instead, the Rust compiler creates and manages the state machine +data structures for async code automatically. If you’re wondering: yep, the +normal borrowing and ownership rules around data structures all apply. Happily, +the compiler also handles checking those for us, and has good error messages. +We’ll work through a few of those later in the chapter! + +Ultimately, something has to execute that state machine. That something is a +runtime. (This is why you may sometimes come across references to *executors* +when looking into runtimes: an executor is the part of a runtime responsible for +executing the async code.) + +Now we can understand why the compiler stopped us from making `main` itself an +async function back in Listing 17-3. If `main` were an async function, something +else would need to manage the state machine for whatever future `main` returned, +but `main` is the starting point for the program! Instead, we call the +`trpl::run` function in `main`, which sets up a runtime and runs the future +returned by the `async` block until it returns `Ready`. + +> Note: some runtimes provide macros to make it so you *can* write an async +> main function. Those macros rewrite `async fn main() { ... }` to be a normal +> `fn main` which does the same thing we did by hand in Listing 17-5: call a +> function which runs a future to completion the way `trpl::run` does. + +Let’s put these pieces together and see how we can write concurrent code, by +calling `page_title` with two different URLs passed in from the command line +and racing them. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -impl Screen { - pub fn run(&self) { - for component in self.components.iter() { - component.draw(); +use trpl::{Either, Html}; + +fn main() { + let args: Vec<String> = std::env::args().collect(); + + trpl::run(async { + let title_fut_1 = page_title(&args[1]); + let title_fut_2 = page_title(&args[2]); + + let (url, maybe_title) = + match trpl::race(title_fut_1, title_fut_2).await { + Either::Left(left) => left, + Either::Right(right) => right, + }; + + println!("{url} returned first"); + match maybe_title { + Some(title) => println!("Its page title is: '{title}'"), + None => println!("Its title could not be parsed."), } - } + }) +} + +async fn page_title(url: &str) -> (&str, Option<String>) { + let text = trpl::get(url).await.text().await; + let title = Html::parse(&text) + .select_first("title") + .map(|title| title.inner_html()); + (url, title) } ``` -Listing 17-5: A `run` method on `Screen` that calls the `draw` method on each -component +Listing 17-5: Calling `page_title` for two URLs to see which returns first + +In Listing 17-5, we begin by calling `page_title` for each of the user-supplied +URLs. We save the futures produced by calling `page_title` as `title_fut_1` and +`title_fut_2`. Remember, these don’t do anything yet, because futures are lazy, +and we haven’t yet awaited them. Then we pass the futures to `trpl::race`, +which returns a value to indicate which of the futures passed to it finishes +first. -This works differently from defining a struct that uses a generic type -parameter with trait bounds. A generic type parameter can only be substituted -with one concrete type at a time, whereas trait objects allow for multiple -concrete types to fill in for the trait object at runtime. For example, we -could have defined the `Screen` struct using a generic type and a trait bound, -as in Listing 17-6. +> Note: Under the hood, `race` is built on a more general function, `select`, +> which you will encounter more often in real-world Rust code. A `select` +> function can do a lot of things that `trpl::race` function can’t, but it also +> has some additional complexity that we can skip over for now. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Either future can legitimately “win,” so it doesn’t make sense to return a +`Result`. Instead, `race` returns a type we haven’t seen before, +`trpl::Either`. The `Either` type is somewhat similar to a `Result`, in that it +has two cases. Unlike `Result`, though, there is no notion of success or +failure baked into `Either`. Instead, it uses `Left` and `Right` to indicate +“one or the other”. ``` -pub struct Screen<T: Draw> { - pub components: Vec<T>, +enum Either<A, B> { + Left(A), + Right(B), } +``` -impl<T> Screen<T> -where - T: Draw, -{ - pub fn run(&self) { - for component in self.components.iter() { - component.draw(); +The `race` function returns `Left` if the first argument finishes first, with +that future’s output, and `Right` with the second future argument’s output if +*that* one finishes first. This matches the order the arguments appear when +calling the function: the first argument is to the left of the second argument. + +We also update `page_title` to return the same URL passed in. That way, if +the page which returns first does not have a `<title>` we can resolve, we can +still print a meaningful message. With that information available, we wrap up by +updating our `println!` output to indicate both which URL finished first and +what the `<title>` was for the web page at that URL, if any. + +You have built a small working web scraper now! Pick a couple URLs and run the +command line tool. You may discover that some sites are reliably faster than +others, while in other cases which site “wins” varies from run to run. More +importantly, you’ve learned the basics of working with futures, so we can now +dig into even more of the things we can do with async. + +## Concurrency With Async + +In this section, we’ll apply async to some of the same concurrency challenges +we tackled with threads in Chapter 16. Because we already talked about a lot of +the key ideas there, in this section we’ll focus on what’s different between +threads and futures. + +In many cases, the APIs for working with concurrency using async are very +similar to those for using threads. In other cases, they end up being shaped +quite differently. Even when the APIs *look* similar between threads and async, +they often have different behavior—and they nearly always have different +performance characteristics. + +### Counting + +The first task we tackled in the “Creating a New Thread with spawn” section of +Chapter 16 on page XX was counting up on two separate threads. Let’s do the +same using async. The `trpl` crate supplies a `spawn_task` function which looks +very similar to the `thread::spawn` API, and a `sleep` function which is an +async version of the `thread::sleep` API. We can use these together to +implement the same counting example as with threads, in Listing 17-6. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + trpl::spawn_task(async { + for i in 1..10 { + println!("hi number {i} from the first task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } + }); + + for i in 1..5 { + println!("hi number {i} from the second task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; } - } + }); } ``` -Listing 17-6: An alternate implementation of the `Screen` struct and its `run` -method using generics and trait bounds +Listing 17-6: Using `spawn_task` to count with two -This restricts us to a `Screen` instance that has a list of components all of -type `Button` or all of type `TextField`. If you’ll only ever have homogeneous -collections, using generics and trait bounds is preferable because the -definitions will be monomorphized at compile time to use the concrete types. +As our starting point, we set up our `main` function with `trpl::run`, so +that our top-level function can be async. -On the other hand, with the method using trait objects, one `Screen` instance -can hold a `Vec<T>` that contains a `Box<Button>` as well as a -`Box<TextField>`. Let’s look at how this works, and then we’ll talk about the -runtime performance implications. +> Note: From this point forward in the chapter, every example will include this +> exact same wrapping code with `trpl::run` in `main`, so we’ll often skip it +> just as we do with `main`. Don’t forget to include it in your code! -### Implementing the Trait +Then we write two loops within that block, each with a `trpl::sleep` call in it, +which waits for half a second (500 milliseconds) before sending the next +message. We put one loop in the body of a `trpl::spawn_task` and the other in a +top-level `for` loop. We also add an `await` after the `sleep` calls. -Now we’ll add some types that implement the `Draw` trait. We’ll provide the -`Button` type. Again, actually implementing a GUI library is beyond the scope -of this book, so the `draw` method won’t have any useful implementation in its -body. To imagine what the implementation might look like, a `Button` struct -might have fields for `width`, `height`, and `label`, as shown in Listing 17-7. +This does something similar to the thread-based implementation—including the +fact that you may see the messages appear in a different order in your own +terminal when you run it. -Filename: src/lib.rs +``` +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +``` + +This version stops as soon as the for loop in the body of the main async block +finishes, because the task spawned by `spawn_task` is shut down when the main +function ends. If you want to run all the way to the completion of the task, you +will need to use a join handle to wait for the first task to complete. With +threads, we used the `join` method to “block” until the thread was done running. +In Listing 17-7, we can use `await` to do the same thing, because the task +handle itself is a future. Its `Output` type is a `Result`, so we also unwrap it +after awaiting it. + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -pub struct Button { - pub width: u32, - pub height: u32, - pub label: String, +let handle = trpl::spawn_task(async { + for i in 1..10 { + println!("hi number {i} from the first task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } +}); + +for i in 1..5 { + println!("hi number {i} from the second task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; } -impl Draw for Button { - fn draw(&self) { - // code to actually draw a button +handle.await.unwrap(); +``` + +Listing 17-7: Using `await` with a join handle to run a task to completion + +This updated version runs till *both* loops finish. + +``` +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +hi number 6 from the first task! +hi number 7 from the first task! +hi number 8 from the first task! +hi number 9 from the first task! +``` + +So far, it looks like async and threads give us the same basic outcomes, just +with different syntax: using `await` instead of calling `join` on the join +handle, and awaiting the `sleep` calls. + +The bigger difference is that we didn’t need to spawn another operating system +thread to do this. In fact, we don’t even need to spawn a task here. Because +async blocks compile to anonymous futures, we can put each loop in an async +block and have the runtime run them both to completion using the `trpl::join` +function. + +In the “Waiting for All Threads to Finish Using `join` Handles” section of +Chapter 16 on page XX, we showed how to use the `join` method on the +`JoinHandle` type returned when you call `std::thread::spawn`. The `trpl::join` +function is similar, but for futures. When you give it two futures, it produces +a single new future whose output is a tuple with the output of each of the +futures you passed in once *both* complete. Thus, in Listing 17-8, we use +`trpl::join` to wait for both `fut1` and `fut2` to finish. We do *not* await +`fut1` and `fut2`, but instead the new future produced by `trpl::join`. We +ignore the output, because it’s just a tuple with two unit values in it. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let fut1 = async { + for i in 1..10 { + println!("hi number {i} from the first task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; } -} +}; + +let fut2 = async { + for i in 1..5 { + println!("hi number {i} from the second task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } +}; + +trpl::join(fut1, fut2).await; ``` -Listing 17-7: A `Button` struct that implements the `Draw` trait +Listing 17-8: Using `trpl::join` to await two anonymous futures -The `width`, `height`, and `label` fields on `Button` will differ from the -fields on other components; for example, a `TextField` type might have those -same fields plus a `placeholder` field. Each of the types we want to draw on -the screen will implement the `Draw` trait but will use different code in the -`draw` method to define how to draw that particular type, as `Button` has here -(without the actual GUI code, as mentioned). The `Button` type, for instance, -might have an additional `impl` block containing methods related to what -happens when a user clicks the button. These kinds of methods won’t apply to -types like `TextField`. +When we run this, we see both futures run to completion: -If someone using our library decides to implement a `SelectBox` struct that has -`width`, `height`, and `options` fields, they would implement the `Draw` trait -on the `SelectBox` type as well, as shown in Listing 17-8. +``` +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +hi number 6 from the first task! +hi number 7 from the first task! +hi number 8 from the first task! +hi number 9 from the first task! +``` + +Here, you’ll see the exact same order every time, which is very different from +what we saw with threads. That is because the `trpl::join` function is *fair*, +meaning it checks each future equally often, alternating between them, and never +lets one race ahead if the other is ready. With threads, the operating system +decides which thread to check and how long to let it run. With async Rust, the +runtime decides which task to check. (In practice, the details get complicated +because an async runtime might use operating system threads under the hood as +part of how it manages concurrency, so guaranteeing fairness can be more work +for a runtime—but it’s still possible!) Runtimes don’t have to guarantee +fairness for any given operation, and runtimes often offer different APIs to let +you choose whether you want fairness or not. + +Try some of these different variations on awaiting the futures and see what they +do: + +* Remove the async block from around either or both of the loops. +* Await each async block immediately after defining it. +* Wrap only the first loop in an async block, and await the resulting future + after the body of second loop. + +For an extra challenge, see if you can figure out what the output will be in +each case *before* running the code! + +### Message Passing + +Sharing data between futures will also be familiar: we’ll use message passing +again, but this with async versions of the types and functions. We’ll take a +slightly different path than we did in the “Using Message Passing to Transfer +Data Between Threads” section of Chapter 16 on page XX, to illustrate some of +the key differences between thread-based and futures-based concurrency. In +Listing 17-9, we’ll begin with just a single async block—*not* spawning a +separate task as we spawned a separate thread. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use gui::Draw; +let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + +let val = String::from("hi"); +tx.send(val).unwrap(); -struct SelectBox { - width: u32, - height: u32, - options: Vec<String>, +let received = rx.recv().await.unwrap(); +println!("Got: {received}"); +``` + +Listing 17-9: Creating an async channel and assigning the two halves to `tx` +and `rx` + +Here, we use `trpl::channel`, an async version of the multiple-producer, +single-consumer channel API we used with threads back in the “Using Message +Passing to Transfer Data Between Threads” section of Chapter 16 on page XX. The +async version of the API is only a little different from the thread-based +version: it uses a mutable rather than an immutable receiver `rx`, and its +`recv` method produces a future we need to await rather than producing the +value directly. Now we can send messages from the sender to the receiver. +Notice that we don’t have to spawn a separate thread or even a task; we merely +need to await the `rx.recv` call. + +The synchronous `Receiver::recv` method in `std::mpsc::channel` blocks until +it receives a message. The `trpl::Receiver::recv` method does not, because it +is async. Instead of blocking, it hands control back to the runtime until either +a message is received or the send side of the channel closes. By contrast, we +don’t await the `send` call, because it doesn’t block. It doesn’t need to, +because the channel we’re sending it into is unbounded. + +> Note: Because all of this async code runs in an async block in a `trpl::run` +> call, everything within it can avoid blocking. However, the code *outside* it +> will block on the `run` function returning. That is the whole point of the +> `trpl::run` function: it lets you *choose* where to block on some set of async +> code, and thus where to transition between sync and async code. In most async +> runtimes, `run` is actually named `block_on` for exactly this reason. + +Notice two things about this example: First, the message will arrive right away! +Second, although we use a future here, there’s no concurrency yet. Everything +in the listing happens in sequence, just as it would if there were no futures +involved. + +Let’s address the first part by sending a series of messages, and sleep in +between them, as shown in Listing 17-10: + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + +let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), +]; + +for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; } -impl Draw for SelectBox { - fn draw(&self) { - // code to actually draw a select box - } +while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); } ``` -Listing 17-8: Another crate using `gui` and implementing the `Draw` trait on a -`SelectBox` struct +Listing 17-10: Sending and receiving multiple messages over the async channel +and sleeping with an `await` between each message + +In addition to sending the messages, we need to receive them. In this case, we +could do that manually, by just doing `rx.recv().await` four times, because we +know how many messages are coming in. In the real world, though, we’ll +generally be waiting on some *unknown* number of messages. In that case, we need +to keep waiting until we determine that there are no more messages. + +In Listing 16-10, we used a `for` loop to process all the items received from a +synchronous channel. However, Rust doesn’t yet have a way to write a `for` loop +over an *asynchronous* series of items. Instead, we need to use a new kind of +loop we haven’t seen before, the `while let` conditional loop. A `while let` +loop is the loop version of the `if let` construct we saw back in the “Concise +Control Flow with `if let`” section in Chapter 6 on page XX. The loop will +continue executing as long as the pattern it specifies continues to match the +value. + +The `rx.recv` call produces a `Future`, which we await. The runtime will pause +the `Future` until it is ready. Once a message arrives, the future will resolve +to `Some(message)`, as many times as a message arrives. When the channel closes, +regardless of whether *any* messages have arrived, the future will instead +resolve to `None` to indicate that there are no more values, and we should stop +polling—that is, stop awaiting. + +The `while let` loop pulls all of this together. If the result of calling +`rx.recv().await` is `Some(message)`, we get access to the message and we can +use it in the loop body, just as we could with `if let`. If the result is +`None`, the loop ends. Every time the loop completes, it hits the await point +again, so the runtime pauses it again until another message arrives. + +The code now successfully sends and receives all of the messages. Unfortunately, +there are still a couple problems. For one thing, the messages do not arrive at +half-second intervals. They arrive all at once, two seconds (2,000 milliseconds) +after we start the program. For another, this program also never exits! Instead, +it waits forever for new messages. You will need to shut it down using <span +class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>. + +Let’s start by understanding why the messages all come in at once after the full +delay, rather than coming in with delays in between each one. Within a given +async block, the order that `await` keywords appear in the code is also the +order they happen when running the program. + +There’s only one async block in Listing 17-10, so everything in it runs +linearly. There’s still no concurrency. All the `tx.send` calls happen, +interspersed with all of the `trpl::sleep` calls and their associated await +points. Only then does the `while let` loop get to go through any of the `await` +points on the `recv` calls. + +To get the behavior we want, where the sleep delay happens between receiving +each message, we need to put the `tx` and `rx` operations in their own async +blocks. Then the runtime can execute each of them separately using `trpl::join`, +just as in the counting example. Once again, we await the result of calling +`trpl::join`, not the individual futures. If we awaited the individual futures +in sequence, we would just end up back in a sequential flow—exactly what we’re +trying *not* to do. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let tx_fut = async { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } +}; + +let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } +}; + +trpl::join(tx_fut, rx_fut).await; +``` -Our library’s user can now write their `main` function to create a `Screen` -instance. To the `Screen` instance, they can add a `SelectBox` and a `Button` -by putting each in a `Box<T>` to become a trait object. They can then call the -`run` method on the `Screen` instance, which will call `draw` on each of the -components. Listing 17-9 shows this implementation. +Listing 17-11: Separating `send` and `recv` into their own `async` blocks and +awaiting the futures for those blocks + +With the updated code in Listing 17-11, the messages get printed at +500-millisecond intervals, rather than all in a rush after two seconds. + +The program still never exits, though, because of the way `while let` loop +interacts with `trpl::join`: + +* The future returned from `trpl::join` only completes once *both* futures + passed to it have completed. +* The `tx` future completes once it finishes sleeping after sending the last + message in `vals`. +* The `rx` future won’t complete until the `while let` loop ends. +* The `while let` loop won’t end until awaiting `rx.recv` produces `None`. +* Awaiting `rx.recv` will only return `None` once the other end of the channel + is closed. +* The channel will only close if we call `rx.close` or when the sender side, + `tx`, is dropped. +* We don’t call `rx.close` anywhere, and `tx` won’t be dropped until the + outermost async block passed to `trpl::run` ends. +* The block can’t end because it is blocked on `trpl::join` completing, which + takes us back to the top of this list! + +We could manually close `rx` by calling `rx.close` somewhere, but that doesn’t +make much sense. Stopping after handling some arbitrary number of messages would +make the program shut down, but we could miss messages. We need some other way +to make sure that `tx` gets dropped *before* the end of the function. + +Right now, the async block where we send the messages only borrows `tx` because +sending a message doesn’t require ownership, but if we could move `tx` into +that async block, it would be dropped once that block ends. In the “Capturing +References or Moving Ownership” section of Chapter 13 on page XX, we learned +how to use the `move` keyword with closures, and in the “Using `move` Closures +with Threads” section of Chapter 16 on page XX, we saw that we often need to +move data into closures when working with threads. The same basic dynamics +apply to async blocks, so the `move` keyword works with async blocks just as it +does with closures. + +In Listing 17-12, we change the async block for sending messages from a plain +`async` block to an `async move` block. When we run *this* version of the code, +it shuts down gracefully after the last message is sent and received. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use gui::{Button, Screen}; +let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + +let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } +}; + +let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + eprintln!("received '{value}'"); + } +}; + +trpl::join(tx_fut, rx_fut).await; +``` + +Listing 17-12: A working example of sending and receiving messages between +futures which correctly shuts down when complete + +This async channel is also a multiple-producer channel, so we can call `clone` +on `tx` if we want to send messages from multiple futures. In Listing 17-13, we +clone `tx`, creating `tx1` outside the first async block. We move `tx1` into +that block just as we did before with `tx`. Then, later, we move the original +`tx` into a *new* async block, where we send more messages on a slightly slower +delay. We happen to put this new async block after the async block for receiving +messages, but it could go before it just as well. The key is the order of the +futures are awaited in, not the order they are created in. + +Both of the async blocks for sending messages need to be `async move` blocks, so +that both `tx` and `tx1` get dropped when those blocks finish. Otherwise we’ll +end up back in the same infinite loop we started out in. Finally, we switch from +`trpl::join` to `trpl::join3` to handle the additional future. + +Filename: src/main.rs -fn main() { - let screen = Screen { - components: vec![ - Box::new(SelectBox { - width: 75, - height: 10, - options: vec![ - String::from("Yes"), - String::from("Maybe"), - String::from("No"), - ], - }), - Box::new(Button { - width: 50, - height: 10, - label: String::from("OK"), - }), - ], - }; - - screen.run(); -} ``` +let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + +let tx1 = tx.clone(); +let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } +}; -Listing 17-9: Using trait objects to store values of different types that -implement the same trait +let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } +}; + +let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1500)).await; + } +}; -When we wrote the library, we didn’t know that someone might add the -`SelectBox` type, but our `Screen` implementation was able to operate on the -new type and draw it because `SelectBox` implements the `Draw` trait, which -means it implements the `draw` method. +trpl::join3(tx1_fut, tx_fut, rx_fut).await; +``` -This concept—of being concerned only with the messages a value responds to -rather than the value’s concrete type—is similar to the concept of *duck -typing* in dynamically typed languages: if it walks like a duck and quacks like -a duck, then it must be a duck! In the implementation of `run` on `Screen` in -Listing 17-5, `run` doesn’t need to know what the concrete type of each -component is. It doesn’t check whether a component is an instance of a `Button` -or a `SelectBox`, it just calls the `draw` method on the component. By -specifying `Box<dyn Draw>` as the type of the values in the `components` -vector, we’ve defined `Screen` to need values that we can call the `draw` -method on. +Listing 17-13: Using multiple producers with async blocks -The advantage of using trait objects and Rust’s type system to write code -similar to code using duck typing is that we never have to check whether a -value implements a particular method at runtime or worry about getting errors -if a value doesn’t implement a method but we call it anyway. Rust won’t compile -our code if the values don’t implement the traits that the trait objects need. +Now we see all the messages from both sending futures. Because the sending +futures use slightly different delays after sending, the messages are also +received at those different intervals. -For example, Listing 17-10 shows what happens if we try to create a `Screen` -with a `String` as a component. +``` +received 'hi' +received 'more' +received 'from' +received 'the' +received 'messages' +received 'future' +received 'for' +received 'you' +``` + +This is a good start, but it limits us to just a handful of futures: two with +`join`, or three with `join3`. Let’s see how we might work with more futures. + +## Working With Any Number of Futures + +When we switched from using two futures to three in the previous section, we +also had to switch from using `join` to using `join3`. It would be annoying to +have to call a different function every time we changed the number of futures we +wanted to join. Happily, we have a macro form of `join` to which we can pass an +arbitrary number of arguments. It also handles awaiting the futures itself. +Thus, we could rewrite the code from Listing 17-13 to use `join!` instead of +`join3`, as in Listing 17-14: Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use gui::Screen; +trpl::join!(tx1_fut, tx_fut, rx_fut); +``` -fn main() { - let screen = Screen { - components: vec![Box::new(String::from("Hi"))], - }; +Listing 17-14: Using `join!` to wait for multiple futures - screen.run(); -} +This is definitely a nice improvement over needing to swap between `join` and +`join3` and `join4` and so on! However, even this macro form only works when we +know the number of futures ahead of time. In real-world Rust, though, pushing +futures into a collection and then waiting on some or all the futures in that +collection to complete is a common pattern. + +To check all the futures in some collection, we’ll need to iterate over and +join on *all* of them. The `trpl::join_all` function accepts any type which +implements the `Iterator` trait, which we learned about back in “The Iterator +Trait and the next Method” section of Chapter 13 on page XX, so it seems like +just the ticket. Let’s try putting our futures in a vector, and replace `join!` +with `join_all`. + +``` +let futures = vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; + +trpl::join_all(futures).await; ``` -Listing 17-10: Attempting to use a type that doesn’t implement the trait -object’s trait +Listing 17-15: Storing anonymous futures in a vector and calling `join_all` -We’ll get this error because `String` doesn’t implement the `Draw` trait: +Unfortunately, this doesn’t compile. Instead, we get this error: ``` -error[E0277]: the trait bound `String: Draw` is not satisfied - --> src/main.rs:5:26 - | -5 | components: vec![Box::new(String::from("Hi"))], - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `Draw` is -not implemented for `String` - | - = note: required for the cast to the object type `dyn Draw` -``` - -This error lets us know that either we’re passing something to `Screen` that we -didn’t mean to pass and so should pass a different type, or we should implement -`Draw` on `String` so that `Screen` is able to call `draw` on it. - -### Trait Objects Perform Dynamic Dispatch - -Recall in “Performance of Code Using Generics” on page XX our discussion on the -monomorphization process performed by the compiler when we use trait bounds on -generics: the compiler generates nongeneric implementations of functions and -methods for each concrete type that we use in place of a generic type -parameter. The code that results from monomorphization is doing *static -dispatch*, which is when the compiler knows what method you’re calling at -compile time. This is opposed to *dynamic dispatch*, which is when the compiler -can’t tell at compile time which method you’re calling. In dynamic dispatch -cases, the compiler emits code that at runtime will figure out which method to -call. - -When we use trait objects, Rust must use dynamic dispatch. The compiler doesn’t -know all the types that might be used with the code that’s using trait objects, -so it doesn’t know which method implemented on which type to call. Instead, at -runtime, Rust uses the pointers inside the trait object to know which method to -call. This lookup incurs a runtime cost that doesn’t occur with static -dispatch. Dynamic dispatch also prevents the compiler from choosing to inline a -method’s code, which in turn prevents some optimizations. However, we did get -extra flexibility in the code that we wrote in Listing 17-5 and were able to -support in Listing 17-9, so it’s a trade-off to consider. - -## Implementing an Object-Oriented Design Pattern - -The *state pattern* is an object-oriented design pattern. The crux of the -pattern is that we define a set of states a value can have internally. The -states are represented by a set of *state objects*, and the value’s behavior -changes based on its state. We’re going to work through an example of a blog -post struct that has a field to hold its state, which will be a state object -from the set “draft,” “review,” or “published.” - -The state objects share functionality: in Rust, of course, we use structs and -traits rather than objects and inheritance. Each state object is responsible -for its own behavior and for governing when it should change into another -state. The value that holds a state object knows nothing about the different -behavior of the states or when to transition between states. - -The advantage of using the state pattern is that, when the business -requirements of the program change, we won’t need to change the code of the -value holding the state or the code that uses the value. We’ll only need to -update the code inside one of the state objects to change its rules or perhaps -add more state objects. - -First we’re going to implement the state pattern in a more traditional -object-oriented way, then we’ll use an approach that’s a bit more natural in -Rust. Let’s dig in to incrementally implement a blog post workflow using the -state pattern. - -The final functionality will look like this: - -1. A blog post starts as an empty draft. -1. When the draft is done, a review of the post is requested. -1. When the post is approved, it gets published. -1. Only published blog posts return content to print, so unapproved posts can’t -accidentally be published. - -Any other changes attempted on a post should have no effect. For example, if we -try to approve a draft blog post before we’ve requested a review, the post -should remain an unpublished draft. - -Listing 17-11 shows this workflow in code form: this is an example usage of the -API we’ll implement in a library crate named `blog`. This won’t compile yet -because we haven’t implemented the `blog` crate. +error[E0308]: mismatched types + --> src/main.rs:43:37 + | +8 | let tx1_fut = async move { + | _______________________- +9 | | let vals = vec![ +10 | | String::from("hi"), +11 | | String::from("from"), +... | +19 | | } +20 | | }; + | |_________- the expected `async` block +21 | +22 | let rx_fut = async { + | ______________________- +23 | | while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { +24 | | println!("received '{value}'"); +25 | | } +26 | | }; + | |_________- the found `async` block +... +43 | let futures = vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; + | ^^^^^^ expected `async` block, found a different `async` block + | + = note: expected `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` + found `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:22:22: 26:10}` + = note: no two async blocks, even if identical, have the same type + = help: consider pinning your async block and and casting it to a trait object +``` + +This might be surprising. After all, none of them return anything, so each +block produces a `Future<Output = ()>`. However, `Future` is a trait, not a +concrete type. The concrete types are the individual data structures generated +by the compiler for async blocks. You can’t put two different hand-written +structs in a `Vec`, and the same thing applies to the different structs +generated by the compiler. + +To make this work, we need to use *trait objects*, just as we did in the +“Returning Errors from the run function” section in Chapter 12 on page XX. +(We’ll cover trait objects in detail in Chapter 18.) Using trait objects lets +us treat each of the anonymous futures produced by these types as the same +type, because all of them implement the `Future` trait. + +> Note: In the “Using an Enum to Store Multiple Types” section of Chapter 8 on +> page XX, we discussed another way to include multiple types in a `Vec`: using +> an enum to represent each of the different types which can appear in the +> vector. We can’t do that here, though. For one thing, we have no way to name +> the different types, because they are anonymous. For another, the reason we +> reached for a vector and `join_all` in the first place was to be able to work +> with a dynamic collection of futures where we don’t know what they will all +> be until runtime. + +We start by wrapping each of the futures in the `vec!` in a `Box::new`, as shown +in Listing 17-16. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use blog::Post; +let futures = + vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; -fn main() { - 1 let mut post = Post::new(); +trpl::join_all(futures).await; +``` - 2 post.add_text("I ate a salad for lunch today"); - 3 assert_eq!("", post.content()); +Listing 17-16: Trying to use `Box::new` to align the types of the futures in a +`Vec` - 4 post.request_review(); - 5 assert_eq!("", post.content()); +Unfortunately, this still doesn’t compile. In fact, we have the same basic +error we did before, but we get one for both the second and third `Box::new` +calls, and we also get new errors referring to the `Unpin` trait. We will come +back to the `Unpin` errors in a moment. First, let’s fix the type errors on the +`Box::new` calls, by explicitly annotating the type of the `futures` variable: - 6 post.approve(); - 7 assert_eq!("I ate a salad for lunch today", post.content()); -} +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let futures: Vec<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>> = + vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; ``` -Listing 17-11: Code that demonstrates the desired behavior we want our `blog` -crate to have +Listing 17-17: Fixing the rest of the type mismatch errors by using an explicit +type declaration -We want to allow the user to create a new draft blog post with `Post::new` [1]. -We want to allow text to be added to the blog post [2]. If we try to get the -post’s content immediately, before approval, we shouldn’t get any text because -the post is still a draft. We’ve added `assert_eq!` in the code for -demonstration purposes [3]. An excellent unit test for this would be to assert -that a draft blog post returns an empty string from the `content` method, but -we’re not going to write tests for this example. +The type we had to write here is a little involved, so let’s walk through it: -Next, we want to enable a request for a review of the post [4], and we want -`content` to return an empty string while waiting for the review [5]. When the -post receives approval [6], it should get published, meaning the text of the -post will be returned when `content` is called [7]. +* The innermost type is the future itself. We note explicitly that the output of + the future is the unit type `()` by writing `Future<Output = ()>`. +* Then we annotate the trait with `dyn` to mark it as dynamic. +* The entire trait reference is wrapped in a `Box`. +* Finally, we state explicitly that `futures` is a `Vec` containing these items. -Notice that the only type we’re interacting with from the crate is the `Post` -type. This type will use the state pattern and will hold a value that will be -one of three state objects representing the various states a post can be -in—draft, review, or published. Changing from one state to another will be -managed internally within the `Post` type. The states change in response to the -methods called by our library’s users on the `Post` instance, but they don’t -have to manage the state changes directly. Also, users can’t make a mistake -with the states, such as publishing a post before it’s reviewed. +That already made a big difference. Now when we run the compiler, we only have +the errors mentioning `Unpin`. Although there are three of them, notice that +each is very similar in its contents. -### Defining Post and Creating a New Instance in the Draft State +``` +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:24 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | -------------- ^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | | + | required by a bound introduced by this call + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `join_all` + --> ~/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:105:14 + | +102 | pub fn join_all<I>(iter: I) -> JoinAll<I::Item> + | -------- required by a bound in this function +... +105 | I::Item: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `join_all` + +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:9 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `JoinAll` + --> ~/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` + +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:33 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `JoinAll` + --> ~/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` + +Some errors have detailed explanations: E0277, E0308. +For more information about an error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. +``` + +That is a *lot* to digest, so let’s pull it apart. The first part of the message +tell us that the first async block (`src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10`) does not +implement the `Unpin` trait, and suggests using `pin!` or `Box::pin` to resolve +it. Later in the chapter, we’ll dig into a few more details about `Pin` and +`Unpin`. For the moment, though, we can just follow the compiler’s advice to get +unstuck! In Listing 17-18, we start by updating the type annotation for +`futures`, with a `Pin` wrapping each `Box`. Second, we use `Box::pin` to pin +the futures themselves. + +Filename: src/main.rs -Let’s get started on the implementation of the library! We know we need a -public `Post` struct that holds some content, so we’ll start with the -definition of the struct and an associated public `new` function to create an -instance of `Post`, as shown in Listing 17-12. We’ll also make a private -`State` trait that will define the behavior that all state objects for a `Post` -must have. +``` +let futures: Vec<Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>>> = + vec![Box::pin(tx1_fut), Box::pin(rx_fut), Box::pin(tx_fut)]; +``` -Then `Post` will hold a trait object of `Box<dyn State>` inside an `Option<T>` -in a private field named `state` to hold the state object. You’ll see why the -`Option<T>` is necessary in a bit. +Listing 17-18: Using `Pin` and `Box::pin` to make the `Vec` type check -Filename: src/lib.rs +If we compile and run this, we finally get the output we hoped for: ``` -pub struct Post { - state: Option<Box<dyn State>>, - content: String, -} +received 'hi' +received 'more' +received 'from' +received 'messages' +received 'the' +received 'for' +received 'future' +received 'you' +``` -impl Post { - pub fn new() -> Post { - Post { - 1 state: Some(Box::new(Draft {})), - 2 content: String::new(), - } - } -} +Phew! + +There’s a bit more we can explore here. For one thing, using `Pin<Box<T>>` +comes with a small amount of extra overhead from putting these futures on the +heap with `Box`—and we’re only doing that to get the types to line up. We don’t +actually *need* the heap allocation, after all: these futures are local to this +particular function. As noted above, `Pin` is itself a wrapper type, so we can +get the benefit of having a single type in the `Vec`—the original reason we +reached for `Box`—without doing a heap allocation. We can use `Pin` directly +with each future, using the `std::pin::pin` macro. -trait State {} +However, we must still be explicit about the type of the pinned reference; +otherwise Rust will still not know to interpret these as dynamic trait objects, +which is what we need them to be in the `Vec`. We therefore `pin!` each future +when we define it, and define `futures` as a `Vec` containing pinned mutable +references to the dynamic `Future` type, as in Listing 17-19. -struct Draft {} +Filename: src/main.rs -impl State for Draft {} ``` +let tx1_fut = pin!(async move { + // --snip-- +}); -Listing 17-12: Definition of a `Post` struct and a `new` function that creates -a new `Post` instance, a `State` trait, and a `Draft` struct +let rx_fut = pin!(async { + // --snip-- +}); -The `State` trait defines the behavior shared by different post states. The -state objects are `Draft`, `PendingReview`, and `Published`, and they will all -implement the `State` trait. For now, the trait doesn’t have any methods, and -we’ll start by defining just the `Draft` state because that is the state we -want a post to start in. +let tx_fut = pin!(async move { + // --snip-- +}); -When we create a new `Post`, we set its `state` field to a `Some` value that -holds a `Box` [1]. This `Box` points to a new instance of the `Draft` struct. -This ensures that whenever we create a new instance of `Post`, it will start -out as a draft. Because the `state` field of `Post` is private, there is no way -to create a `Post` in any other state! In the `Post::new` function, we set the -`content` field to a new, empty `String` [2]. +let futures: Vec<Pin<&mut dyn Future<Output = ()>>> = + vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; +``` -### Storing the Text of the Post Content +Listing 17-19: Using `Pin` directly with the `pin!` macro to avoid unnecessary +heap allocations -We saw in Listing 17-11 that we want to be able to call a method named -`add_text` and pass it a `&str` that is then added as the text content of the -blog post. We implement this as a method, rather than exposing the `content` -field as `pub`, so that later we can implement a method that will control how -the `content` field’s data is read. The `add_text` method is pretty -straightforward, so let’s add the implementation in Listing 17-13 to the `impl -Post` block. +We got this far by ignoring the fact that we might have different `Output` +types. For example, in Listing 17-20, the anonymous future for `a` implements +`Future<Output = u32>`, the anonymous future for `b` implements +`Future<Output = &str>`, and the anonymous future for `c` implements +`Future<Output = bool>`. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -impl Post { - --snip-- - pub fn add_text(&mut self, text: &str) { - self.content.push_str(text); - } -} + let a = async { 1u32 }; + let b = async { "Hello!" }; + let c = async { true }; + + let (a_result, b_result, c_result) = trpl::join!(a, b, c); + println!("{a_result}, {b_result}, {c_result}"); ``` -Listing 17-13: Implementing the `add_text` method to add text to a post’s -`content` +Listing 17-20: Three futures with distinct types + +We can use `trpl::join!` to await them, because it allows you to pass in +multiple future types and produces a tuple of those types. We *cannot* use +`trpl::join_all`, because it requires the futures passed in all to have the same +type. Remember, that error is what got us started on this adventure with `Pin`! -The `add_text` method takes a mutable reference to `self` because we’re -changing the `Post` instance that we’re calling `add_text` on. We then call -`push_str` on the `String` in `content` and pass the `text` argument to add to -the saved `content`. This behavior doesn’t depend on the state the post is in, -so it’s not part of the state pattern. The `add_text` method doesn’t interact -with the `state` field at all, but it is part of the behavior we want to -support. +This is a fundamental tradeoff: we can either deal with a dynamic number of +futures with `join_all`, as long as they all have the same type, or we can deal +with a set number of futures with the `join` functions or the `join!` macro, +even if they have different types. This is the same as working with any other +types in Rust, though. Futures are not special, even though we have some nice +syntax for working with them, and that is a good thing. -### Ensuring the Content of a Draft Post Is Empty +### Racing futures -Even after we’ve called `add_text` and added some content to our post, we still -want the `content` method to return an empty string slice because the post is -still in the draft state, as shown at [3] in Listing 17-11. For now, let’s -implement the `content` method with the simplest thing that will fulfill this -requirement: always returning an empty string slice. We’ll change this later -once we implement the ability to change a post’s state so it can be published. -So far, posts can only be in the draft state, so the post content should always -be empty. Listing 17-14 shows this placeholder implementation. +When we “join” futures with the `join` family of functions and macros, we +require *all* of them to finish before we move on. Sometimes, though, we only +need *some* future from a set to finish before we move on—kind of similar to +racing one future against another. -Filename: src/lib.rs +In Listing 17-21, we once again use `trpl::race` to run two futures, `slow` and +`fast`, against each other. Each one prints a message when it starts running, +pauses for some amount of time by calling and awaiting `sleep`, and then prints +another message when it finishes. Then we pass both to `trpl::race` and wait for +one of them to finish. (The outcome here won’t be too surprising: `fast` wins!) +Unlike when we used `race` back in the “Our First Async Program” section of this +chapter on page XX, we just ignore the `Either` instance it returns here, +because all of the interesting behavior happens in the body of the async blocks. + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -impl Post { - --snip-- - pub fn content(&self) -> &str { - "" - } +let slow = async { + println!("'slow' started."); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(100)).await; + println!("'slow' finished."); +}; + +let fast = async { + println!("'fast' started."); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(50)).await; + println!("'fast' finished."); +}; + +trpl::race(slow, fast).await; +``` + +Listing 17-21: Using `race` to get the result of whichever future finishes first + +Notice that if you flip the order of the arguments to `race`, the order of the +“started” messages changes, even though the `fast` future always completes +first. That’s because the implementation of this particular `race` function is +not fair. It always runs the futures passed as arguments in the order they’re +passed. Other implementations *are* fair, and will randomly choose which future +to poll first. Regardless of whether the implementation of race we’re using is +fair, though, *one* of the futures will run up to the first `await` in its body +before another task can start. + +Recall from the “Our First Async Program” section of this chapter on page XX +that at each await point, Rust gives a runtime a chance to pause the task and +switch to another one if the future being awaited isn’t ready. The inverse is +also true: Rust *only* pauses async blocks and hands control back to a runtime +at an await point. Everything between await points is synchronous. + +That means if you do a bunch of work in an async block without an await point, +that future will block any other futures from making progress. You may sometimes +hear this referred to as one future *starving* other futures. In some cases, +that may not be a big deal. However, if you are doing some kind of expensive +setup or long-running work, or if you have a future which will keep doing some +particular task indefinitely, you’ll need to think about when and where to +hand control back to the runtime. + +By the same token, if you have long-running blocking operations, async can be a +useful tool for providing ways for different parts of the program to relate to +each other. + +But *how* would you hand control back to the runtime in those cases? + +### Yielding + +Let’s simulate a long-running operation. Listing 17-22 introduces a `slow` +function. It uses `std::thread::sleep` instead of `trpl::sleep` so that calling +`slow` will block the current thread for some number of milliseconds. We can use +`slow` to stand in for real-world operations which are both long-running and +blocking. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn slow(name: &str, ms: u64) { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(ms)); + println!("'{name}' ran for {ms}ms"); } ``` -Listing 17-14: Adding a placeholder implementation for the `content` method on -`Post` that always returns an empty string slice +Listing 17-22: Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations + +In Listing 17-23, we use `slow` to emulate doing this kind of CPU-bound work in +a pair of futures. To begin, each future only hands control back to the runtime +*after* carrying out a bunch of slow operations. -With this added `content` method, everything in Listing 17-11 up to the line at -[3] works as intended. +Filename: src/main.rs -### Requesting a Review Changes the Post’s State +``` +let a = async { + println!("'a' started."); + slow("a", 30); + slow("a", 10); + slow("a", 20); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(50)).await; + println!("'a' finished."); +}; + +let b = async { + println!("'b' started."); + slow("b", 75); + slow("b", 10); + slow("b", 15); + slow("b", 350); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(50)).await; + println!("'b' finished."); +}; + +trpl::race(a, b).await; +``` -Next, we need to add functionality to request a review of a post, which should -change its state from `Draft` to `PendingReview`. Listing 17-15 shows this code. +Listing 17-23: Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations -Filename: src/lib.rs +If you run this, you will see this output: ``` -impl Post { - --snip-- - 1 pub fn request_review(&mut self) { - 2 if let Some(s) = self.state.take() { - 3 self.state = Some(s.request_review()) - } +'a' started. +'a' ran for 30ms +'a' ran for 10ms +'a' ran for 20ms +'b' started. +'b' ran for 75ms +'b' ran for 10ms +'b' ran for 15ms +'b' ran for 350ms +'a' finished. +``` + +As with our earlier example, `race` still finishes as soon as `a` is done. +There’s no interleaving between the two futures, though. The `a` future does all +of its work until the `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, then the `b` future does +all of its work until its own `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, and then the `a` +future completes. To allow both futures to make progress between their slow +tasks, we need await points so we can hand control back to the runtime. That +means we need something we can await! + +We can already see this kind of handoff happening in Listing 17-23: if we +removed the `trpl::sleep` at the end of the `a` future, it would complete +without the `b` future running *at all*. Maybe we could use the `sleep` function +as a starting point? + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let one_ms = Duration::from_millis(1); + +let a = async { + println!("'a' started."); + slow("a", 30); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("a", 10); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("a", 20); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + println!("'a' finished."); +}; + +let b = async { + println!("'b' started."); + slow("b", 75); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 10); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 15); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 35); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + println!("'b' finished."); +}; +``` + +Listing 17-24: Using `sleep` to let operations switch off making progress + +In Listing 17-24, we add `trpl::sleep` calls with await points between each call +to `slow`. Now the two futures’ work is interleaved: + +``` +'a' started. +'a' ran for 30ms +'b' started. +'b' ran for 75ms +'a' ran for 10ms +'b' ran for 10ms +'a' ran for 20ms +'b' ran for 15ms +'a' finished. +``` + +The `a` future still runs for a bit before handing off control to `b`, because +it calls `slow` before ever calling `trpl::sleep`, but after that the futures +swap back and forth each time one of them hits an await point. In this case, we +have done that after every call to `slow`, but we could break up the work +however makes the most sense to us. + +We don’t really want to *sleep* here, though: we want to make progress as fast +as we can. We just need to hand back control to the runtime. We can do that +directly, using the `yield_now` function. In Listing 17-25, we replace all those +`sleep` calls with `yield_now`. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let a = async { + println!("'a' started."); + slow("a", 30); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("a", 10); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("a", 20); + trpl::yield_now().await; + println!("'a' finished."); +}; + +let b = async { + println!("'b' started."); + slow("b", 75); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 10); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 15); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 35); + trpl::yield_now().await; + println!("'b' finished."); +}; +``` + +Listing 17-25: Using `yield_now` to let operations switch off making progress + +This is both clearer about the actual intent and can be significantly faster +than using `sleep`, because timers such as the one used by `sleep` often have +limits to how granular they can be. The version of `sleep` we are using, for +example, will always sleep for at least a millisecond, even if we pass it a +`Duration` of one nanosecond. Again, modern computers are *fast*: they can do a +lot in one millisecond! + +You can see this for yourself by setting up a little benchmark, such as the one +in Listing 17-26. (This isn’t an especially rigorous way to do performance +testing, but it suffices to show the difference here.) Here, we skip all the +status printing, pass a one-nanosecond `Duration` to `trpl::sleep`, and let +each future run by itself, with no switching between the futures. Then we run +for 1,000 iterations and see how long the future using `trpl::sleep` takes +compared to the future using `trpl::yield_now`. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let one_ns = Duration::from_nanos(1); +let start = Instant::now(); +async { + for _ in 1..1000 { + trpl::sleep(one_ns).await; } } - -trait State { - 4 fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State>; +.await; +let time = Instant::now() - start; +println!( + "'sleep' version finished after {} seconds.", + time.as_secs_f32() +); + +let start = Instant::now(); +async { + for _ in 1..1000 { + trpl::yield_now().await; + } } +.await; +let time = Instant::now() - start; +println!( + "'yield' version finished after {} seconds.", + time.as_secs_f32() +); +``` + +Listing 17-26: Comparing the performance of `sleep` and `yield_now` + +The version with `yield_now` is *way* faster! + +This means that async can be useful even for compute-bound tasks, depending on +what else your program is doing, because it provides a useful tool for +structuring the relationships between different parts of the program. This is a +form of *cooperative multitasking*, where each future has the power to determine +when it hands over control via await points. Each future therefore also has the +responsibility to avoid blocking for too long. In some Rust-based embedded +operating systems, this is the *only* kind of multitasking! + +In real-world code, you won’t usually be alternating function calls with await +points on every single line, of course. While yielding control in this way is +relatively inexpensive, it’s not free! In many cases, trying to break up a +compute-bound task might make it significantly slower, so sometimes it’s better +for *overall* performance to let an operation block briefly. You should always +measure to see what your code’s actual performance bottlenecks are. The +underlying dynamic is an important one to keep in mind if you *are* seeing a +lot of work happening in serial that you expected to happen concurrently, +though! -struct Draft {} +### Building Our Own Async Abstractions -impl State for Draft { - fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { - 5 Box::new(PendingReview {}) +We can also compose futures together to create new patterns. For example, we can +build a `timeout` function with async building blocks we already have. When +we’re done, the result will be another building block we could use to build up +yet further async abstractions. + +Listing 17-27 shows how we would expect this `timeout` to work with a slow +future. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let slow = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(100)).await; + "I finished!" +}; + +match timeout(slow, Duration::from_millis(10)).await { + Ok(message) => println!("Succeeded with '{message}'"), + Err(duration) => { + println!("Failed after {} seconds", duration.as_secs()) } } +``` -struct PendingReview {} +Listing 17-27: Using our imagined `timeout` to run a slow operation with a time +limit -impl State for PendingReview { - fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { - 6 self - } +Let’s implement this! To begin, let’s think about the API for `timeout`: + +* It needs to be an async function itself so we can await it. +* Its first parameter should be a future to run. We can make it generic to allow + it to work with any future. +* Its second parameter will be the maximum time to wait. If we use a `Duration`, + that will make it easy to pass along to `trpl::sleep`. +* It should return a `Result`. If the future completes successfully, the + `Result` will be `Ok` with the value produced by the future. If the timeout + elapses first, the `Result` will be `Err` with the duration that the timeout + waited for. + +Listing 17-28 shows this declaration. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +async fn timeout<F: Future>( + future_to_try: F, + max_time: Duration, +) -> Result<F::Output, Duration> { + // Here is where our implementation will go! } ``` -Listing 17-15: Implementing `request_review` methods on `Post` and the `State` -trait - -We give `Post` a public method named `request_review` that will take a mutable -reference to `self` [1]. Then we call an internal `request_review` method on -the current state of `Post` [3], and this second `request_review` method -consumes the current state and returns a new state. - -We add the `request_review` method to the `State` trait [4]; all types that -implement the trait will now need to implement the `request_review` method. -Note that rather than having `self`, `&self`, or `&mut self` as the first -parameter of the method, we have `self: Box<Self>`. This syntax means the -method is only valid when called on a `Box` holding the type. This syntax takes -ownership of `Box<Self>`, invalidating the old state so the state value of the -`Post` can transform into a new state. - -To consume the old state, the `request_review` method needs to take ownership -of the state value. This is where the `Option` in the `state` field of `Post` -comes in: we call the `take` method to take the `Some` value out of the `state` -field and leave a `None` in its place because Rust doesn’t let us have -unpopulated fields in structs [2]. This lets us move the `state` value out of -`Post` rather than borrowing it. Then we’ll set the post’s `state` value to the -result of this operation. - -We need to set `state` to `None` temporarily rather than setting it directly -with code like `self.state = self.state.request_review();` to get ownership of -the `state` value. This ensures `Post` can’t use the old `state` value after -we’ve transformed it into a new state. - -The `request_review` method on `Draft` returns a new, boxed instance of a new -`PendingReview` struct [5], which represents the state when a post is waiting -for a review. The `PendingReview` struct also implements the `request_review` -method but doesn’t do any transformations. Rather, it returns itself [6] -because when we request a review on a post already in the `PendingReview` -state, it should stay in the `PendingReview` state. - -Now we can start seeing the advantages of the state pattern: the -`request_review` method on `Post` is the same no matter its `state` value. Each -state is responsible for its own rules. - -We’ll leave the `content` method on `Post` as is, returning an empty string -slice. We can now have a `Post` in the `PendingReview` state as well as in the -`Draft` state, but we want the same behavior in the `PendingReview` state. -Listing 17-11 now works up to the line at [5]! - -### Adding approve to Change the Behavior of content - -The `approve` method will be similar to the `request_review` method: it will -set `state` to the value that the current state says it should have when that -state is approved, as shown in Listing 17-16. - -Filename: src/lib.rs - -``` -impl Post { - --snip-- - pub fn approve(&mut self) { - if let Some(s) = self.state.take() { - self.state = Some(s.approve()) +Listing 17-28: Defining the signature of `timeout` + +That satisfies our goals for the types. Now let’s think about the *behavior* we +need: we want to race the future passed in against the duration. We can use +`trpl::sleep` to make a timer future from the duration, and use `trpl::race` to +run that timer with the future the caller passes in. + +We also know that `race` is not fair, and polls arguments in the order they are +passed. Thus, we pass `future_to_try` to `race` first so it gets a chance to +complete even if `max_time` is a very short duration. If `future_to_try` +finishes first, `race` will return `Left` with the output from `future`. If +`timer` finishes first, `race` will return `Right` with the timer’s output of +`()`. + +In Listing 17-29, we match on the result of awaiting `trpl::race`. If the +`future_to_try` succeeded and we get a `Left(output)`, we return `Ok(output)`. +If the sleep timer elapsed instead and we get a `Right(())`, we ignore the `()` +with `_` and return `Err(max_time)` instead. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use trpl::Either; + +// --snip-- + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let slow = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)).await; + "Finally finished" + }; + + match timeout(slow, Duration::from_secs(2)).await { + Ok(message) => println!("Succeeded with '{message}'"), + Err(duration) => { + println!("Failed after {} seconds", duration.as_secs()) + } } + }); +} + +async fn timeout<F: Future>( + future_to_try: F, + max_time: Duration, +) -> Result<F::Output, Duration> { + match trpl::race(future_to_try, trpl::sleep(max_time)).await { + Either::Left(output) => Ok(output), + Either::Right(_) => Err(max_time), } +``` + +Listing 17-29: Defining `timeout` with `race` and `sleep` + +With that, we have a working `timeout`, built out of two other async helpers. If +we run our code, it will print the failure mode after the timeout: + +``` +Failed after 2 seconds +``` + +Because futures compose with other futures, you can build really powerful tools +using smaller async building blocks. For example, you can use this same +approach to combine timeouts with retries, and in turn use those with things +such as network calls—one of the examples from the beginning of the chapter! + +In practice, you will usually work directly with `async` and `await`, and +secondarily with functions and macros such as `join`, `join_all`, `race`, and +so on. You’ll only need to reach for `pin` now and again to use them with those +APIs. + +We’ve now seen a number of ways to work with multiple futures at the same +time. Up next, we’ll look at how we can work with multiple futures in a +sequence over time, with *streams*. Here are a couple more things you might want +to consider first, though: + +* We used a `Vec` with `join_all` to wait for all of the futures in some group + to finish. How could you use a `Vec` to process a group of futures in + sequence, instead? What are the tradeoffs of doing that? + +* Take a look at the `futures::stream::FuturesUnordered` type from the `futures` + crate. How would using it be different from using a `Vec`? (Don’t worry about + the fact that it is from the `stream` part of the crate; it works just fine + with any collection of futures.) + +## Streams + +So far in this chapter, we have mostly stuck to individual futures. The one big +exception was the async channel we used. Recall how we used the receiver for +our async channel in the “Message Passing” section of this chapter on page XX. +The async `recv` method produces a sequence of items over time. This is an +instance of a much more general pattern, often called a *stream*. + +A sequence of items is something we’ve seen before, when we looked at the +`Iterator` trait in “The `Iterator` Trait and the `next` Method” section of +Chapter 13 on page XX, but there are two differences between iterators and the +async channel receiver. The first difference is the element of time: iterators +are synchronous, while the channel receiver is asynchronous. The second +difference is the API. When working directly with an `Iterator`, we call its +synchronous `next` method. With the `trpl::Receiver` stream in particular, we +called an asynchronous `recv` method instead, but these APIs otherwise feel +very similar. + +That similarity isn’t a coincidence. A stream is similar to an asynchronous +form of iteration. Whereas the `trpl::Receiver` specifically waits to receive +messages, though, the general-purpose stream API is much more general: it +provides the next item the way `Iterator` does, but asynchronously. The +similarity between iterators and streams in Rust means we can actually create a +stream from any iterator. As with an iterator, we can work with a stream by +calling its `next` method and then awaiting the output, as in Listing 17-30. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let values = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]; +let iter = values.iter().map(|n| n * 2); +let mut stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(iter); + +while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { + println!("The value was: {value}"); } +``` + +Listing 17-30: Creating a stream from an iterator and printing its values + +We start with an array of numbers, which we convert to an iterator and then call +`map` on to double all the values. Then we convert the iterator into a stream +using the `trpl::stream_from_iter` function. Then we loop over the items in the +stream as they arrive with the `while let` loop. + +Unfortunately, when we try to run the code, it doesn’t compile. Instead, as we +can see in the output, it reports that there is no `next` method available. -trait State { - fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State>; - fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State>; +``` +error[E0599]: no method named `next` found for struct `Iter` in the current scope + --> src/main.rs:8:40 + | +8 | while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { + | ^^^^ + | + = note: the full type name has been written to '~/projects/hello-async/target/debug/deps/async_await-bbd5bb8f6851cb5f.long-type-18426562901668632191.txt' + = note: consider using `--verbose` to print the full type name to the console + = help: items from traits can only be used if the trait is in scope +help: the following traits which provide `next` are implemented but not in scope; perhaps you want to import one of them + | +1 + use futures_util::stream::stream::StreamExt; + | +1 + use std::iter::Iterator; + | +1 + use std::str::pattern::Searcher; + | +1 + use trpl::StreamExt; + | +help: there is a method `try_next` with a similar name + | +8 | while let Some(value) = stream.try_next().await { + | ~~~~~~~~ + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0599`. +``` + +As the output suggests, the reason for the compiler error is that we need the +right trait in scope to be able to use the `next` method. Given our discussion +so far, you might reasonably expect that to be `Stream`, but the trait we need +here is actually `StreamExt`. The `Ext` there is for “extension”: this is a +common pattern in the Rust community for extending one trait with another. + +Why do we need `StreamExt` instead of `Stream`, and what does the `Stream` trait +itself do? Briefly, the answer is that throughout the Rust ecosystem, the +`Stream` trait defines a low-level interface which effectively combines the +`Iterator` and `Future` traits. The `StreamExt` trait supplies a higher-level +set of APIs on top of `Stream`, including the `next` method as well as other +utility methods similar to those provided by the `Iterator` trait. We’ll return +to the `Stream` and `StreamExt` traits in a bit more detail at the end of the +chapter. For now, this is enough to let us keep moving. + +The fix to the compiler error is to add a `use` statement for `trpl::StreamExt`, +as in Listing 17-31. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use trpl::StreamExt; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let values = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]; + let iter = values.iter().map(|n| n * 2); + let mut stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(iter); + + while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { + println!("The value was: {value}"); + } + }); } +``` -struct Draft {} +Listing 17-31: Successfully using an iterator as the basis for a stream -impl State for Draft { - --snip-- - fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { - 1 self - } +With all those pieces put together, this code works the way we want! What’s +more, now that we have `StreamExt` in scope, we can use all of its utility +methods, just as with iterators. For example, in Listing 17-32, we use the +`filter` method to filter out everything but multiples of three and five. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use trpl::StreamExt; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let values = 1..101; + let iter = values.map(|n| n * 2); + let stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(iter); + + let mut filtered = + stream.filter(|value| value % 3 == 0 || value % 5 == 0); + + while let Some(value) = filtered.next().await { + println!("The value was: {value}"); + } + }); } +``` -struct PendingReview {} +Listing 17-32: Filtering a `Stream` with the `StreamExt::filter` method -impl State for PendingReview { - --snip-- - fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { - 2 Box::new(Published {}) - } +Of course, this isn’t very interesting. We could do that with normal iterators +and without any async at all. So let’s look at some of the other things we can +do which are unique to streams. + +### Composing Streams + +Many concepts are naturally represented as streams: items becoming available in +a queue, or working with more data than can fit in a computer’s memory by only +pulling chunks of it from the file system at a time, or data arriving over the +network over time. Because streams are futures, we can use them with any other +kind of future, too, and we can combine them in interesting ways. For example, +we can batch up events to avoid triggering too many network calls, set timeouts +on sequences of long-running operations, or throttle user interface events to +avoid doing needless work. + +Let’s start by building a little stream of messages, as a stand-in for a stream +of data we might see from a WebSocket or another real-time communication +protocol. In Listing 17-33, we create a function `get_messages` which returns +`impl Stream<Item = String>`. For its implementation, we create an async +channel, loop over the first ten letters of the English alphabet, and send them +across the channel. + +We also use a new type: `ReceiverStream`, which converts the `rx` receiver from +the `trpl::channel` into a `Stream` with a `next` method. Back in `main`, we use +a `while let` loop to print all the messages from the stream. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let mut messages = get_messages(); + + while let Some(message) = messages.next().await { + println!("{message}"); + } + }); } -struct Published {} +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream<Item = String> { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); -impl State for Published { - fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { - self + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for message in messages { + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); } - fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { - self - } + ReceiverStream::new(rx) } ``` -Listing 17-16: Implementing the `approve` method on `Post` and the `State` trait +Listing 17-33: Using the `rx` receiver as a `ReceiverStream` -We add the `approve` method to the `State` trait and add a new struct that -implements `State`, the `Published` state. +When we run this code, we get exactly the results we would expect: -Similar to the way `request_review` on `PendingReview` works, if we call the -`approve` method on a `Draft`, it will have no effect because `approve` will -return `self` [1]. When we call `approve` on `PendingReview`, it returns a new, -boxed instance of the `Published` struct [2]. The `Published` struct implements -the `State` trait, and for both the `request_review` method and the `approve` -method, it returns itself because the post should stay in the `Published` state -in those cases. +``` +Message: 'a' +Message: 'b' +Message: 'c' +Message: 'd' +Message: 'e' +Message: 'f' +Message: 'g' +Message: 'h' +Message: 'i' +Message: 'j' +``` -Now we need to update the `content` method on `Post`. We want the value -returned from `content` to depend on the current state of the `Post`, so we’re -going to have the `Post` delegate to a `content` method defined on its `state`, -as shown in Listing 17-17. +We could do this with the regular `Receiver` API, or even the regular `Iterator` +API, though. Let’s add something that requires streams: adding a timeout +which applies to every item in the stream, and a delay on the items we emit. -Filename: src/lib.rs +In Listing 17-34, we start by adding a timeout to the stream with the `timeout` +method, which comes from the `StreamExt` trait. Then we update the body of the +`while let` loop, because the stream now returns a `Result`. The `Ok` variant +indicates a message arrived in time; the `Err` variant indicates that the +timeout elapsed before any message arrived. We `match` on that result and either +print the message when we receive it successfully, or print a notice about the +timeout. Finally, notice that we pin the messages after applying the timeout to +them, because the timeout helper produces a stream which needs to be pinned to +be polled. + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -impl Post { - --snip-- - pub fn content(&self) -> &str { - self.state.as_ref().unwrap().content(self) - } - --snip-- +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let mut messages = + pin!(get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200))); + + while let Some(result) = messages.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) } ``` -Listing 17-17: Updating the `content` method on `Post` to delegate to a -`content` method on `State` +Listing 17-34: Using the `StreamExt::timeout` method to set a time limit on the +items in a stream + +However, because there are no delays between messages, this timeout does not +change the behavior of the program. Let’s add a variable delay to the messages +we send. In `get_messages`, we use the `enumerate` iterator method with the +`messages` array so that we can get the index of each item we are sending along +with the item itself. Then we apply a 100 millisecond delay to even-index items +and a 300 millisecond delay to odd-index items, to simulate the different delays +we might see from a stream of messages in the real world. Because our timeout is +for 200 milliseconds, this should affect half of the messages. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream<Item = String> { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; -Because the goal is to keep all of these rules inside the structs that -implement `State`, we call a `content` method on the value in `state` and pass -the post instance (that is, `self`) as an argument. Then we return the value -that’s returned from using the `content` method on the `state` value. + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} +``` -We call the `as_ref` method on the `Option` because we want a reference to the -value inside the `Option` rather than ownership of the value. Because `state` -is an `Option<Box<dyn State>>`, when we call `as_ref`, an `Option<&Box<dyn -State>>` is returned. If we didn’t call `as_ref`, we would get an error because -we can’t move `state` out of the borrowed `&self` of the function parameter. +Listing 17-35: Sending messages through `tx` with an async delay without making +`get_messages` an async function + +To sleep between messages in the `get_messages` function without blocking, we +need to use async. However, we can’t make `get_messages` itself into an async +function, because then we’d return a `Future<Output = Stream<Item = String>>` +instead of a `Stream<Item = String>>`. The caller would have to await +`get_messages` itself to get access to the stream. But remember: everything in a +given future happens linearly; concurrency happens *between* futures. Awaiting +`get_messages` would require it to send all the messages, including sleeping +between sending each message, before returning the receiver stream. As a result, +the timeout would end up useless. There would be no delays in the stream itself: +the delays would all happen before the stream was even available. + +Instead, we leave `get_messages` as a regular function which returns a stream, +and spawn a task to handle the async `sleep` calls. + +> Note: calling `spawn_task` in this way works because we already set up our +> runtime. Calling this particular implementation of `spawn_task` *without* +> first setting up a runtime will cause a panic. Other implementations choose +> different tradeoffs: they might spawn a new runtime and so avoid the panic but +> end up with a bit of extra overhead, or simply not provide a standalone way to +> spawn tasks without reference to a runtime. You should make sure you know what +> tradeoff your runtime has chosen and write your code accordingly! + +Now our code has a much more interesting result! Between every other pair of +messages, we see an error reported: `Problem: Elapsed(())`. -We then call the `unwrap` method, which we know will never panic because we -know the methods on `Post` ensure that `state` will always contain a `Some` -value when those methods are done. This is one of the cases we talked about in -“Cases in Which You Have More Information Than the Compiler” on page XX when we -know that a `None` value is never possible, even though the compiler isn’t able -to understand that. +``` +Message: 'a' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'b' +Message: 'c' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'd' +Message: 'e' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'f' +Message: 'g' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'h' +Message: 'i' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'j' +``` -At this point, when we call `content` on the `&Box<dyn State>`, deref coercion -will take effect on the `&` and the `Box` so the `content` method will -ultimately be called on the type that implements the `State` trait. That means -we need to add `content` to the `State` trait definition, and that is where -we’ll put the logic for what content to return depending on which state we -have, as shown in Listing 17-18. +The timeout doesn’t prevent the messages from arriving in the end—we still get +all of the original messages. This is because our channel is unbounded: it can +hold as many messages as we can fit in memory. If the message doesn’t arrive +before the timeout, our stream handler will account for that, but when it polls +the stream again, the message may now have arrived. + +You can get different behavior if needed by using other kinds of channels, or +other kinds of streams more generally. Let’s see one of those in practice in our +final example for this section, by combining a stream of time intervals with +this stream of messages. + +### Merging Streams + +First, let’s create another stream, which will emit an item every millisecond if +we let it run directly. For simplicity, we can use the `sleep` function to send +a message on a delay, and combine it with the same approach of creating a stream +from a channel we used in `get_messages`. The difference is that this time, +we’re going to send back the count of intervals which has elapsed, so the return +type will be `impl Stream<Item = u32>`, and we can call the function +`get_intervals`. + +In Listing 17-36, we start by defining a `count` in the task. (We could define +it outside the task, too, but it is clearer to limit the scope of any given +variable.) Then we create an infinite loop. Each iteration of the loop +asynchronously sleeps for one millisecond, increments the count, and then sends +it over the channel. Because this is all wrapped in the task created by +`spawn_task`, all of it will get cleaned up along with the runtime, including +the infinite loop. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -trait State { - --snip-- - fn content<'a>(&self, post: &'a Post) -> &'a str { - 1 "" - } +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream<Item = u32> { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + count += 1; + tx.send(count).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) } +``` ---snip-- -struct Published {} +Listing 17-36: Creating a stream with a counter that will be emitted once every +millisecond + +This kind of infinite loop, which only ends when the whole runtime gets torn +down, is fairly common in async Rust: many programs need to keep running +indefinitely. With async, this doesn’t block anything else, as long as there is +at least one await point in each iteration through the loop. + +Back in our main function’s async block, we start by calling `get_intervals`. +Then we merge the `messages` and `intervals` streams with the `merge` method, +which combines multiple streams into one stream that produces items from any of +the source streams as soon as the items are available, without imposing any +particular ordering. Finally, we loop over that combined stream instead of over +`messages` (Listing 17-37). + +Filename: src/main.rs -impl State for Published { - --snip-- - fn content<'a>(&self, post: &'a Post) -> &'a str { - 2 &post.content - } -} +``` +let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); +let intervals = get_intervals(); +let merged = messages.merge(intervals); ``` -Listing 17-18: Adding the `content` method to the `State` trait +Listing 17-37: Attempting to merge streams of messages and intervals + +At this point, neither `messages` nor `intervals` needs to be pinned or +mutable, because both will be combined into the single `merged` stream. +However, this call to `merge` does not compile! (Neither does the `next` call +in the `while let` loop, but we’ll come back to that after fixing this.) The +two streams have different types. The `messages` stream has the type +`Timeout<impl Stream<Item = String>>`, where `Timeout` is the type which +implements `Stream` for a `timeout` call. Meanwhile, the `intervals` stream has +the type `impl Stream<Item = u32>`. To merge these two streams, we need to +transform one of them to match the other. + +In Listing 17-38, we rework the `intervals` stream, because `messages` is +already in the basic format we want and has to handle timeout errors. First, we +can use the `map` helper method to transform the `intervals` into a string. +Second, we need to match the `Timeout` from `messages`. Because we don’t +actually *want* a timeout for `intervals`, though, we can just create a timeout +which is longer than the other durations we are using. Here, we create a +10-second timeout with `Duration::from_secs(10)`. Finally, we need to make +`stream` mutable, so that the `while let` loop’s `next` calls can iterate +through the stream, and pin it so that it’s safe to do so. -We add a default implementation for the `content` method that returns an empty -string slice [1]. That means we don’t need to implement `content` on the -`Draft` and `PendingReview` structs. The `Published` struct will override the -`content` method and return the value in `post.content` [2]. +Filename: src/main.rs -Note that we need lifetime annotations on this method, as we discussed in -Chapter 10. We’re taking a reference to a `post` as an argument and returning a -reference to part of that `post`, so the lifetime of the returned reference is -related to the lifetime of the `post` argument. +``` +let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); +let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval: {count}")) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); +let merged = messages.merge(intervals); +let mut stream = pin!(merged); +``` -And we’re done—all of Listing 17-11 now works! We’ve implemented the state -pattern with the rules of the blog post workflow. The logic related to the -rules lives in the state objects rather than being scattered throughout `Post`. +Listing 17-38: Aligning the types of the the `intervals` stream with the type +of the `messages` stream -> ### Why Not An Enum? -> -> You may have been wondering why we didn’t use an `enum` with the different -possible post states as variants. That’s certainly a possible solution; try it -and compare the end results to see which you prefer! One disadvantage of using -an enum is that every place that checks the value of the enum will need a -`match` expression or similar to handle every possible variant. This could get -more repetitive than this trait object solution. - -### Trade-offs of the State Pattern - -We’ve shown that Rust is capable of implementing the object-oriented state -pattern to encapsulate the different kinds of behavior a post should have in -each state. The methods on `Post` know nothing about the various behaviors. The -way we organized the code, we have to look in only one place to know the -different ways a published post can behave: the implementation of the `State` -trait on the `Published` struct. - -If we were to create an alternative implementation that didn’t use the state -pattern, we might instead use `match` expressions in the methods on `Post` or -even in the `main` code that checks the state of the post and changes behavior -in those places. That would mean we would have to look in several places to -understand all the implications of a post being in the published state! This -would only increase the more states we added: each of those `match` expressions -would need another arm. - -With the state pattern, the `Post` methods and the places we use `Post` don’t -need `match` expressions, and to add a new state, we would only need to add a -new struct and implement the trait methods on that one struct. - -The implementation using the state pattern is easy to extend to add more -functionality. To see the simplicity of maintaining code that uses the state -pattern, try a few of these suggestions: - -* Add a `reject` method that changes the post’s state from `PendingReview` back -to `Draft`. -* Require two calls to `approve` before the state can be changed to `Published`. -* Allow users to add text content only when a post is in the `Draft` state. -Hint: have the state object responsible for what might change about the content -but not responsible for modifying the `Post`. - -One downside of the state pattern is that, because the states implement the -transitions between states, some of the states are coupled to each other. If we -add another state between `PendingReview` and `Published`, such as `Scheduled`, -we would have to change the code in `PendingReview` to transition to -`Scheduled` instead. It would be less work if `PendingReview` didn’t need to -change with the addition of a new state, but that would mean switching to -another design pattern. - -Another downside is that we’ve duplicated some logic. To eliminate some of the -duplication, we might try to make default implementations for the -`request_review` and `approve` methods on the `State` trait that return `self`. -However, this wouldn’t work: when using `State` as a trait object, the trait -doesn’t know what the concrete `self` will be exactly, so the return type isn’t -known at compile time. - -Other duplication includes the similar implementations of the `request_review` -and `approve` methods on `Post`. Both methods delegate to the implementation of -the same method on the value in the `state` field of `Option` and set the new -value of the `state` field to the result. If we had a lot of methods on `Post` -that followed this pattern, we might consider defining a macro to eliminate the -repetition (see “Macros” on page XX). - -By implementing the state pattern exactly as it’s defined for object-oriented -languages, we’re not taking as full advantage of Rust’s strengths as we could. -Let’s look at some changes we can make to the `blog` crate that can make -invalid states and transitions into compile-time errors. - -#### Encoding States and Behavior as Types - -We’ll show you how to rethink the state pattern to get a different set of -trade-offs. Rather than encapsulating the states and transitions completely so -outside code has no knowledge of them, we’ll encode the states into different -types. Consequently, Rust’s type checking system will prevent attempts to use -draft posts where only published posts are allowed by issuing a compiler error. - -Let’s consider the first part of `main` in Listing 17-11: +That gets us *almost* to where we need to be. Everything type checks. If you run +this, though, there will be two problems. First, it will never stop! You’ll +need to stop it with <span class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>. Second, the +messages from the English alphabet will be buried in the midst of all the +interval counter messages: + +``` +--snip-- +Interval: 38 +Interval: 39 +Interval: 40 +Message: 'a' +Interval: 41 +Interval: 42 +Interval: 43 +--snip-- +``` + +Listing 17-39 shows one way to solve these last two problems. First, we use the +`throttle` method on the `intervals` stream, so that it doesn’t overwhelm the +`messages` stream. Throttling is a way of limiting the rate at which a function +will be called—or, in this case, how often the stream will be polled. Once every +hundred milliseconds should do, because that is in the same ballpark as how +often our messages arrive. + +To limit the number of items we will accept from a stream, we can use the `take` +method. We apply it to the *merged* stream, because we want to limit the final +output, not just one stream or the other. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn main() { - let mut post = Post::new(); +let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); +let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval: {count}")) + .throttle(Duration::from_millis(100)) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); +let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); +let mut stream = pin!(merged); +``` - post.add_text("I ate a salad for lunch today"); - assert_eq!("", post.content()); +Listing 17-39: Using `throttle` and `take` to manage the merged streams + +Now when we run the program, it stops after pulling twenty items from the +stream, and the intervals don’t overwhelm the messages. We also don’t get +`Interval: 100` or `Interval: 200` or so on, but instead get `Interval: 1`, +`Interval: 2`, and so on—even though we have a source stream which *can* +produce an event every millisecond. That’s because the `throttle` call +produces a new stream, wrapping the original stream, so that the original +stream only gets polled at the throttle rate, not its own “native” rate. We +don’t have a bunch of unhandled interval messages we’re choosing to +ignore. Instead, we never produce those interval messages in the first place! +This is the inherent “laziness” of Rust’s futures at work again, allowing us to +choose our performance characteristics. + +``` +Interval: 1 +Message: 'a' +Interval: 2 +Interval: 3 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval: 4 +Message: 'b' +Interval: 5 +Message: 'c' +Interval: 6 +Interval: 7 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval: 8 +Message: 'd' +Interval: 9 +Message: 'e' +Interval: 10 +Interval: 11 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval: 12 +``` + +There’s one last thing we need to handle: errors! With both of these +channel-based streams, the `send` calls could fail when the other side of the +channel closes—and that’s just a matter of how the runtime executes the futures +which make up the stream. Up until now we have ignored this by calling `unwrap`, +but in a well-behaved app, we should explicitly handle the error, at minimum by +ending the loop so we don’t try to send any more messages! Listing 17-40 shows +a simple error strategy: print the issue and then `break` from the loops. As +usual, the correct way to handle a message send error will vary—just make sure +you have a strategy. + +``` +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream<Item = String> { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")) { + eprintln!("Cannot send message '{message}': {send_error}"); + break; + } + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream<Item = u32> { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + count += 1; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(count) { + eprintln!("Could not send interval {count}: {send_error}"); + break; + }; + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) } ``` -We still enable the creation of new posts in the draft state using `Post::new` -and the ability to add text to the post’s content. But instead of having a -`content` method on a draft post that returns an empty string, we’ll make it so -draft posts don’t have the `content` method at all. That way, if we try to get -a draft post’s content, we’ll get a compiler error telling us the method -doesn’t exist. As a result, it will be impossible for us to accidentally -display draft post content in production because that code won’t even compile. -Listing 17-19 shows the definition of a `Post` struct and a `DraftPost` struct, -as well as methods on each. +Listing 17-40: Handling errors and shutting down the loops + +Now that we’ve seen a bunch of async in practice, let’s take a step back and +dig into a few of the details of how `Future`, `Stream`, and the other key +traits which Rust uses to make async work. -Filename: src/lib.rs +## Digging Into the Traits for Async + +Throughout the chapter, we’ve used the `Future`, `Pin`, `Unpin`, `Stream`, and +`StreamExt` traits in various ways. So far, though, we’ve avoided digging too +far into the details of how they work or how they fit together. Much of the time +when writing Rust day to day, this is fine. Sometimes, though, you’ll hit +situations where understanding a few more of these details matters. In this +section, we’ll dig down *enough* further to help with those situations—while +still leaving the *really* deep dive for other documentation! + +### Future + +Back in the “Futures and the Async Syntax” section of this chapter on page XX, +we noted that `Future` is a trait. Let’s start by taking a closer look at how +it works. Here is how Rust defines a `Future`: ``` -pub struct Post { - content: String, +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +pub trait Future { + type Output; + + fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Self::Output>; } +``` + +That trait definition includes a bunch of new types and also some syntax we +haven’t seen before, so let’s walk through the definition piece by piece. -pub struct DraftPost { - content: String, +First, `Future`’s associated type `Output` says what the future resolves to. +This is analogous to the `Item` associated type for the `Iterator` trait. +Second, `Future` also has the `poll` method, which takes a special `Pin` +reference for its `self` parameter and a mutable reference to a `Context` type, +and returns a `Poll<Self::Output>`. We’ll talk a little more about `Pin` and +`Context` later in the section. For now, let’s focus on what the method returns, +the `Poll` type: + +``` +enum Poll<T> { + Ready(T), + Pending, } +``` -impl Post { - 1 pub fn new() -> DraftPost { - DraftPost { - content: String::new(), - } - } +This `Poll` type is similar to an `Option`: it has one variant which has a value +(`Ready(T)`), and one which does not (`Pending`). It means something quite +different, though! The `Pending` variant indicates that the future still has +work to do, so the caller will need to check again later. The `Ready` variant +indicates that the `Future` has finished its work and the `T` value is +available. + +> Note: With most futures, the caller should not call `poll` again after the +> future has returned `Ready`. Many futures will panic if polled again after +> becoming ready! Futures which are safe to poll again will say so explicitly in +> their documentation. This is similar to how `Iterator::next` behaves! + +Under the hood, when you see code which uses `await`, Rust compiles that to code +which calls `poll`. If you look back at Listing 17-4, where we printed out the +page title for a single URL once it resolved, Rust compiles it into something +kind of (although not exactly) like this: - 2 pub fn content(&self) -> &str { - &self.content +``` +match page_title(url).poll() { + Ready(page_title) => match page_title { + Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"), + None => println!("{url} had no title"), + } + Pending => { + // But what goes here? } } +``` + +What should we do when the `Future` is still `Pending`? We need some way to try +again… and again, and again, until the future is finally ready. In other words, +a loop: -impl DraftPost { - 3 pub fn add_text(&mut self, text: &str) { - self.content.push_str(text); +``` +let mut page_title_fut = page_title(url); +loop { + match page_title_fut.poll() { + Ready(value) => match page_title { + Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"), + None => println!("{url} had no title"), + } + Pending => { + // continue + } } } ``` -Listing 17-19: A `Post` with a `content` method and a `DraftPost` without a -`content` method +If Rust compiled it to exactly that code, though, every `await` would be +blocking—exactly the opposite of what we were going for! Instead, Rust needs +makes sure that the loop can hand off control to something which can pause work +on this future and work on other futures and check this one again later. That +“something” is an async runtime, and this scheduling and coordination work is +one of the main jobs for a runtime. + +Recall our description (in the “Counting” section of this chapter on page XX) +of waiting on `rx.recv`. The `recv` call returns a `Future`, and awaiting it +polls it. In our initial discussion, we noted that a runtime will pause the +future until it’s ready with either `Some(message)` or `None` when the channel +closes. With our deeper understanding of `Future` in place, and specifically +`Future::poll`, we can see how that works. The runtime knows the future isn’t +ready when it returns `Poll::Pending`. Conversely, the runtime knows the future +is ready and advances it when `poll` returns `Poll::Ready(Some(message))` or +`Poll::Ready(None)`. + +The exact details of how a runtime does that are more than we will cover in even +this deep dive section. The key here is to see the basic mechanic of futures: a +runtime *polls* each future it is responsible for, putting it back to sleep when +it is not yet ready. + +### Pinning and the Pin and Unpin Traits + +When we introduced the idea of pinning while working on Listing 17-17, we ran +into a very gnarly error message. Here is the relevant part of it again: -Both the `Post` and `DraftPost` structs have a private `content` field that -stores the blog post text. The structs no longer have the `state` field because -we’re moving the encoding of the state to the types of the structs. The `Post` -struct will represent a published post, and it has a `content` method that -returns the `content` [2]. +``` +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:33 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `JoinAll` + --> ~/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` + +Some errors have detailed explanations: E0277, E0308. +For more information about an error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. +``` + +When we read this error message carefully, it not only tells us that we need to +pin the values, but also tells us why pinning is required. The `trpl::join_all` +function returns a struct called `JoinAll`. That struct is generic over a type +`F`, which is constrained to implement the `Future` trait. Directly awaiting a +future with `await` pins the future implicitly. That’s why we don’t need to use +`pin!` everywhere we want to await futures. -We still have a `Post::new` function, but instead of returning an instance of -`Post`, it returns an instance of `DraftPost` [1]. Because `content` is private -and there aren’t any functions that return `Post`, it’s not possible to create -an instance of `Post` right now. +However, we’re not directly awaiting a future here. Instead, we construct a new +future, `JoinAll`, by passing a collection of futures to the `join_all` +function. The signature for `join_all` produces requires that the type of the +items in the collection all implement the `Future` trait, and `Box<T>` only +implements `Future` if the `T` that it wraps is a future which implements the +`Unpin` trait. -The `DraftPost` struct has an `add_text` method, so we can add text to -`content` as before [3], but note that `DraftPost` does not have a `content` -method defined! So now the program ensures all posts start as draft posts, and -draft posts don’t have their content available for display. Any attempt to get -around these constraints will result in a compiler error. +That’s a lot! But we can understand it, if we dive a little further into how the +`Future` type actually works, in particular around *pinning*. -#### Implementing Transitions as Transformations into Different Types +Let’s look again at the definition of `Future`: -So how do we get a published post? We want to enforce the rule that a draft -post has to be reviewed and approved before it can be published. A post in the -pending review state should still not display any content. Let’s implement -these constraints by adding another struct, `PendingReviewPost`, defining the -`request_review` method on `DraftPost` to return a `PendingReviewPost` and -defining an `approve` method on `PendingReviewPost` to return a `Post`, as -shown in Listing 17-20. +``` +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; -Filename: src/lib.rs +pub trait Future { + type Output; + // Required method + fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Self::Output>; +} ``` -impl DraftPost { - --snip-- - pub fn request_review(self) -> PendingReviewPost { - PendingReviewPost { - content: self.content, - } - } + +The `cx` parameter and its `Context` type is the key to how a runtime actually +knows when to check any given future, while still being lazy. The details of how +that works are beyond the scope of this chapter, though: you generally only need +to worry about it when writing a custom `Future` implementation. + +Instead, we’ll focus on the type for `self`. This is the first time we’ve seen +a method where `self` has a type annotation. A type annotation for `self` is +similar to type annotations for other function parameters, with two key +differences. First, when we specify the type of `self` in this way, we’re +telling Rust what type `self` must be to call this method. Second, a type +annotation on `self` can’t be just any type. It’s only allowed to be the type +on which the method is implemented, a reference or smart pointer to that type, +or a `Pin` wrapping a reference to that type. We’ll see more on this syntax in +Chapter 18. For now, it’s enough to know that if we want to poll a future (to +check whether it is `Pending` or `Ready(Output)`), we need a mutable reference +to the type, which is wrapped in a `Pin`. + +`Pin` is a wrapper type. In some ways, it’s similar to the `Box`, `Rc`, and +other smart pointer types we saw in Chapter 15, which also wrap other types. +Unlike those, however, `Pin` only works with *pointer types* such as references +(`&` and `&mut`) and smart pointers (`Box`, `Rc`, and so on). To be precise, +`Pin` works with types which implement the `Deref` or `DerefMut` traits, which +we covered in the “Treating Smart Pointers Like Regular References with the +Deref Trait” section of Chapter 15 on page XX. You can think of this restriction +as equivalent to only working with pointers, though, because implementing +`Deref` or `DerefMut` means your type behaves similarly to a pointer type. `Pin` +is also not a pointer itself, and it doesn’t have any behavior of its own the +way `Rc` and `Arc` do with ref counting. It’s purely a tool the compiler can use +to uphold the relevant guarantees, by wrapping pointers in the type. + +Recalling that `await` is implemented in terms of calls to `poll`, this starts +to explain the error message we saw above—but that was in terms of `Unpin`, not +`Pin`. So what exactly are `Pin` and `Unpin`, how do they relate, and why does +`Future` need `self` to be in a `Pin` type to call `poll`? + +In the “”ur First Async Program” section of this chapter on page XX, we +described how a series of await points in a future get compiled into a state +machine—and noted how the compiler helps make sure that state machine follows +all of Rust’s normal rules around safety, including borrowing and ownership. To +make that work, Rust looks at what data is needed between each await point and +the next await point or the end of the async block. It then creates a +corresponding variant in the state machine it creates. Each variant gets the +access it needs to the data that will be used in that section of the source +code, whether by taking ownership of that data or by getting a mutable or +immutable reference to it. + +So far so good: if we get anything wrong about the ownership or references in a +given async block, the borrow checker will tell us. When we want to move around +the future that corresponds to that block—like moving it into a `Vec` to pass to +`join_all`, the way we did back in—things get trickier. + +When we move a future—whether by pushing into a data structure to use as an +iterator with `join_all`, or returning them from a function—that actually means +moving the state machine Rust creates for us. And unlike most other types in +Rust, the futures Rust creates for async blocks can end up with references to +themselves in the fields of any given variant, as in Figure 17-4 (a simplified +illustration to help you get a feel for the idea, rather than digging into what +are often fairly complicated details). + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-04.svg" /> + +Figure 17-4: A self-referential data type. + +By default, though, any object which has a reference to itself is unsafe to +move, because references always point to the actual memory address of the thing +they refer to. If you move the data structure itself, those internal references +will be left pointing to the old location. However, that memory location is now +invalid. For one thing, its value will not be updated when you make changes to +the data structure. For another—and more importantly!—the computer is now free +to reuse that memory for other things! You could end up reading completely +unrelated data later. + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-05.svg" /> + +Figure 17-5: The unsafe result of moving a self-referential data type. + +In principle, the Rust compiler could try to update every reference to an object +every time it gets moved. That would potentially be a lot of performance +overhead, especially given there can be a whole web of references that need +updating. On the other hand, if we could make sure the data structure in +question *doesn’t move in memory*, we don’t have to update any references. +This is exactly what Rust’s borrow checker requires: you can’t move an item +which has any active references to it using safe code. + +`Pin` builds on that to give us the exact guarantee we need. When we *pin* a +value by wrapping a pointer to that value in `Pin`, it can no longer move. Thus, +if you have `Pin<Box<SomeType>>`, you actually pin the `SomeType` value, *not* +the `Box` pointer. Figure 17-6 illustrates this: + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-06.svg" /> + +Figure 17-6: Pinning a `Box` which points to a self-referential future type. + +In fact, the `Box` pointer can still move around freely. Remember: we care about +making sure the data ultimately being referenced stays in its place. If a +pointer moves around, but the data it points to is in the same place, as in +Figure 17-7, there’s no potential problem. (How you would do this with a `Pin` +wrapping a `Box` is more than we’ll get into in this particular discussion, +but it would make for a good exercise! If you look at the docs for the types as +well as the `std::pin` module, you might be able to work out how you would do +that.) The key is that the self-referential type itself cannot move, because it +is still pinned. + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-07.svg" /> + +Figure 17-7: Moving a `Box` which points to a self-referential future type. + +However, most types are perfectly safe to move around, even if they happen to +be behind a `Pin` pointer. We only need to think about pinning when items have +internal references. Primitive values such as numbers and booleans don’t have +any internal references, so they’re obviously safe. Neither do most types you +normally work with in Rust. A `Vec`, for example, doesn’t have any internal +references it needs to keep up to date this way, so you can move it around +without worrying. If you have a `Pin<Vec<String>>`, you’d have to do everything +via the safe but restrictive APIs provided by `Pin`, even though a +`Vec<String>` is always safe to move if there are no other references to it. We +need a way to tell the compiler that it’s actually just fine to move items +around in cases such as these. For that, we have `Unpin`. + +`Unpin` is a marker trait, similar to the `Send` and `Sync` traits we saw in the +“Extensible Concurrency with the `Sync` and `Send` Traits” section of Chapter +16 on page XX. Recall that marker traits have no functionality of their own. +They exist only to tell the compiler that it’s safe to use the type which +implements a given trait in a particular context. `Unpin` informs the compiler +that a given type does *not* need to uphold any particular guarantees about +whether the value in question can be moved. + +Just as with `Send` and `Sync`, the compiler implements `Unpin` automatically +for all types where it can prove it is safe. The special case, again similar to +`Send` and `Sync`, is the case where `Unpin` is *not* implemented for a type. +The notation for this is `impl !Unpin for SomeType`, where `SomeType` is the +name of a type which *does* need to uphold those guarantees to be safe whenever +a pointer to that type it is used in a `Pin`. + +In other words, there are two things to keep in mind about the relationship +between `Pin` and `Unpin`. First, `Unpin` is the “normal” case, and `!Unpin` is +the special case. Second, whether a type implements `Unpin` or `!Unpin` *only* +matters when using a pinned pointer to that type like `Pin<&mut SomeType>`. + +To make that concrete, think about a `String`: it has a length and the Unicode +characters which make it up. We can wrap a `String` in `Pin`, as seen in Figure +17-8. However, `String` automatically implements `Unpin`, the same as most other +types in Rust. + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-08.svg" /> + +Figure 17-8: Pinning a String, with a dotted line indicating that the String +implements the `Unpin` trait, so it is not pinned. + +As a result, we can do things which would be illegal if `String` implemented +`!Unpin` instead, such as replace one string with another at the exact same +location in memory as in Figure 17-9. This doesn’t violate the `Pin` contract, +because `String` has no internal references that make it unsafe to move around! +That is precisely why it implements `Unpin` rather than `!Unpin`. + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-09.svg" /> + +Figure 17-9: Replacing the String with an entirely different String in memory. + +Now we know enough to understand the errors reported for that `join_all` call +from back in Listing 17-17. We originally tried to move the futures produced by +async blocks into a `Vec<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>>`, but as we’ve seen, +those futures may have internal references, so they don’t automatically +implement `Unpin`. Once we pin them, we can pass the resulting `Pin` type into +the `Vec`, confident that the underlying data in the futures will *not* be +moved. + +`Pin` and `Unpin` are mostly important for building lower-level libraries, or +when you’re building a runtime itself, rather than for day to day Rust code. +When you see these traits in error messages, though, now you’ll have a better +idea of how to fix the code! + +> Note: This combination of `Pin` and `Unpin` allows a whole class of complex +> types to be safe in Rust which are otherwise difficult to implement because +> they’re self-referential. Types which require `Pin` show up *most* commonly +> in async Rust today, but you might—very rarely!—see it in other contexts, too. +> +> The specifics of how `Pin` and `Unpin` work, and the rules they’re required +> to uphold, are covered extensively in the API documentation for `std::pin`, so +> if you’d like to understand them more deeply, that’s a great place to start. +> +> If you want to understand how things work “under the hood” in even more +> detail, the official *Asynchronous Programming in Rust* book available at +> *https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/* has you covered: +> +> * Chapter 2: Under the Hood: Executing Futures and Tasks +> * Chapter 4: Pinning + +### The Stream Trait + +Now that we have a deeper grasp on the `Future`, `Pin`, and `Unpin` traits, we +can turn our attention to the `Stream` trait. As described in the section +introducing streams, streams are similar to asynchronous iterators. Unlike +`Iterator` and `Future`, there is no definition of a `Stream` trait in the +standard library as of the time of writing, but there *is* a very common +definition from the `futures` crate used throughout the ecosystem. + +Let’s review the definitions of the `Iterator` and `Future` traits, so we can +build up to how a `Stream` trait that merges them together might look. From +`Iterator`, we have the idea of a sequence: its `next` method provides an +`Option<Self::Item>`. From `Future`, we have the idea of readiness over time: +its `poll` method provides a `Poll<Self::Output>`. To represent a sequence of +items which become ready over time, we define a `Stream` trait which puts those +features together: + +``` +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +trait Stream { + type Item; + + fn poll_next( + self: Pin<&mut Self>, + cx: &mut Context<'_> + ) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>>; } +``` + +The `Stream` trait defines an associated type `Item` for the type of the items +produced by the stream. This is similar to `Iterator`: there may be zero to +many of these, and unlike `Future`, where there is always a single `Output` +(even if it’s the unit type `()`). + +`Stream` also defines a method to get those items. We call it `poll_next`, to +make it clear that it polls in the same way `Future::poll` does and produces a +sequence of items in the same way `Iterator::next` does. Its return type +combines `Poll` with `Option`. The outer type is `Poll`, because it has to be +checked for readiness, just as a future does. The inner type is `Option`, +because it needs to signal whether there are more messages, just as an iterator +does. + +Something very similar to this will likely end up standardized as part of Rust’s +standard library. In the meantime, it’s part of the toolkit of most runtimes, +so you can rely on it, and everything we cover below should generally apply! + +In the example we saw in the section on streaming, though, we didn’t use +`poll_next` *or* `Stream`, but instead used `next` and `StreamExt`. We *could* +work directly in terms of the `poll_next` API by hand-writing our own `Stream` +state machines, of course, just as we *could* work with futures directly via +their `poll` method. Using `await` is much nicer, though, so the `StreamExt` +trait supplies the `next` method so we can do just that. -pub struct PendingReviewPost { - content: String, +``` +trait StreamExt: Stream { + async fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> + where + Self: Unpin; + + // other methods... } +``` -impl PendingReviewPost { - pub fn approve(self) -> Post { - Post { - content: self.content, +> Note: The actual definition we used earlier in the chapter looks slightly +> different than this, because it supports versions of Rust which did not yet +> support using async functions in traits. As a result, it looks like this: +> +> ``` +> fn next(&mut self) -> Next<'_, Self> where Self: Unpin; +> ``` +> +> That `Next` type is a `struct` which implements `Future` and gives a way to +> name the lifetime of the reference to `self` with `Next<'_, Self>`, so that +> `await` can work with this method! + +The `StreamExt` trait is also the home of all the interesting methods available +to use with streams. `StreamExt` is automatically implemented for every type +which implements `Stream`, but these traits are defined separately so that the +community can iterate on the foundational trait distinctly from the convenience +APIs. + +In the version of `StreamExt` used in the `trpl` crate, the trait not only +defines the `next` method, it also supplies an implementation of `next`, which +correctly handles the details of calling `Stream::poll_next`. This means that +even when you need to write your own streaming data type, you *only* have to +implement `Stream`, and then anyone who uses your data type can use `StreamExt` +and its methods with it automatically. + +That’s all we’re going to cover for the lower-level details on these traits. To +wrap up, let’s consider how futures (including streams), tasks, and threads all +fit together! + +## Futures, Tasks, and Threads + +As we saw in the “Using Threads to Run Code Simultaneously” section of Chapter +16 on page XX, threads provide one approach to concurrency. We’ve seen another +approach to concurrency in this chapter, using async with futures and streams. +You might be wondering why you would choose one or the other. The answer is: it +depends! And in many cases, the choice isn’t threads *or* async but rather +threads *and* async. + +Many operating systems have supplied threading-based concurrency models for +decades now, and many programming languages have support for them as a result. +However, they are not without their tradeoffs. On many operating systems, they +use a fair bit of memory for each thread, and they come with some overhead for +starting up and shutting down. Threads are also only an option when your +operating system and hardware support them! Unlike mainstream desktop and mobile +computers, some embedded systems don’t have an OS at all, so they also don’t +have threads! + +The async model provides a different—and ultimately complementary—set of +tradeoffs. In the async model, concurrent operations don’t require their own +threads. Instead, they can run on tasks, as when we used `trpl::spawn_task` to +kick off work from a synchronous function throughout the streams section. A task +is similar to a thread, but instead of being managed by the operating system, +it’s managed by library-level code: the runtime. + +In the previous section, we saw that we could build a `Stream` by using an async +channel and spawning an async task which we could call from synchronous code. We +could do the exact same thing with a thread! In Listing 17-40, we used +`trpl::spawn_task` and `trpl::sleep`. In Listing 17-41, we replace those with +the `thread::spawn` and `thread::sleep` APIs from the standard library in the +`get_intervals` function. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream<Item = u32> { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + // This is *not* `trpl::spawn` but `std::thread::spawn`! + thread::spawn(move || { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + // Likewise, this is *not* `trpl::sleep` but `std::thread::sleep`! + thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)); + count += 1; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(count) { + eprintln!("Could not send interval {count}: {send_error}"); + break; + }; } - } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) } ``` -Listing 17-20: A `PendingReviewPost` that gets created by calling -`request_review` on `DraftPost` and an `approve` method that turns a -`PendingReviewPost` into a published `Post` - -The `request_review` and `approve` methods take ownership of `self`, thus -consuming the `DraftPost` and `PendingReviewPost` instances and transforming -them into a `PendingReviewPost` and a published `Post`, respectively. This way, -we won’t have any lingering `DraftPost` instances after we’ve called -`request_review` on them, and so forth. The `PendingReviewPost` struct doesn’t -have a `content` method defined on it, so attempting to read its content -results in a compiler error, as with `DraftPost`. Because the only way to get a -published `Post` instance that does have a `content` method defined is to call -the `approve` method on a `PendingReviewPost`, and the only way to get a -`PendingReviewPost` is to call the `request_review` method on a `DraftPost`, -we’ve now encoded the blog post workflow into the type system. - -But we also have to make some small changes to `main`. The `request_review` and -`approve` methods return new instances rather than modifying the struct they’re -called on, so we need to add more `let post =` shadowing assignments to save -the returned instances. We also can’t have the assertions about the draft and -pending review posts’ contents be empty strings, nor do we need them: we can’t -compile code that tries to use the content of posts in those states any longer. -The updated code in `main` is shown in Listing 17-21. +Listing 17-41: Using the `std::thread` APIs instead of the async `trpl` APIs +for the `get_intervals` function + +If you run this, the output is identical. And notice how little changes here +from the perspective of the calling code! What’s more, even though one of our +functions spawned an async task on the runtime and the other spawned an +OS thread, the resulting streams were unaffected by the differences. + +Despite the similarities, these two approaches behave very differently, although +we might have a hard time measuring it in this very simple example. We could +spawn millions of async tasks on any modern personal computer. If we tried to do +that with threads, we would literally run out of memory! + +However, there’s a reason these APIs are so similar. Threads act as a boundary +for sets of synchronous operations; concurrency is possible *between* threads. +Tasks act as a boundary for sets of *asynchronous* operations; concurrency is +possible both *between* and *within* tasks, because a task can switch between +futures in its body. Finally, futures are Rust’s most granular unit of +concurrency, and each future may represent a tree of other futures. The +runtime—specifically, its executor—manages tasks, and tasks manage futures. In +that regard, tasks are similar to lightweight, runtime-managed threads with +added capabilities that come from being managed by a runtime instead of by the +operating system. + +This doesn’t mean that async tasks are always better than threads, any more than +that threads are always better than tasks. + +Concurrency with threads is in some ways a simpler programming model than +concurrency with `async`. That can be a strength or a weakness. Threads are +somewhat “fire and forget,” they have no native equivalent to a future, so they +simply run to completion, without interruption except by the operating system +itself. That is, they have no built-in support for *intra-task concurrency* the +way futures do. Threads in Rust also have no mechanisms for cancellation—a +subject we haven’t covered in depth in this chapter, but which is implicit in +the fact that whenever we ended a future, its state got cleaned up correctly. + +These limitations also make threads harder to compose than futures. It’s much +more difficult, for example, to use threads to build helpers such as the +`timeout` we built in the “Building Our Own Async Abstractions” section of this +chapter on page XX or the `throttle` method we used with streams in the +“Composing Streams” section of this chapter on page XX. The fact that futures +are richer data structures means they can be composed together more naturally, +as we have seen. + +Tasks then give *additional* control over futures, allowing you to choose where +and how to group the futures. And it turns out that threads and tasks often +work very well together, because tasks can (at least in some runtimes) be moved +around between threads. We haven’t mentioned it up until now, but under the +hood the `Runtime` we have been using, including the `spawn_blocking` and +`spawn_task` functions, is multithreaded by default! Many runtimes use an +approach called *work stealing* to transparently move tasks around between +threads based on the current utilization of the threads, with the aim of +improving the overall performance of the system. To build that actually requires +threads *and* tasks, and therefore futures. + +As a default way of thinking about which to use when: + +* If the work is *very parallelizable*, such as processing a bunch of data where + each part can be processed separately, threads are a better choice. +* If the work is *very concurrent*, such as handling messages from a bunch of + different sources which may come in a different intervals or different rates, + async is a better choice. + +And if you need some mix of parallelism and concurrency, you don’t have to +choose between threads and async. You can use them together freely, letting each +one serve the part it is best at. For example, Listing 17-42 shows a fairly +common example of this kind of mix in real-world Rust code. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use blog::Post; +use std::{thread, time::Duration}; fn main() { - let mut post = Post::new(); - - post.add_text("I ate a salad for lunch today"); - - let post = post.request_review(); + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); - let post = post.approve(); + thread::spawn(move || { + for i in 1..11 { + tx.send(i).unwrap(); + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)); + } + }); - assert_eq!("I ate a salad for lunch today", post.content()); + trpl::run(async { + while let Some(message) = rx.recv().await { + println!("{message}"); + } + }); } ``` -Listing 17-21: Modifications to `main` to use the new implementation of the -blog post workflow - -The changes we needed to make to `main` to reassign `post` mean that this -implementation doesn’t quite follow the object-oriented state pattern anymore: -the transformations between the states are no longer encapsulated entirely -within the `Post` implementation. However, our gain is that invalid states are -now impossible because of the type system and the type checking that happens at -compile time! This ensures that certain bugs, such as display of the content of -an unpublished post, will be discovered before they make it to production. +Listing 17-42: Sending messages with blocking code in a thread and awaiting the +messages in an async block -Try the tasks suggested at the start of this section on the `blog` crate as it -is after Listing 17-21 to see what you think about the design of this version -of the code. Note that some of the tasks might be completed already in this -design. +We begin by creating an async channel. Then we spawn a thread which takes +ownership of the sender side of the channel. Within the thread, we send the +numbers 1 through 10, and sleep for a second in between each. Finally, we run a +future created with an async block passed to `trpl::run` just as we have +throughout the chapter. In that future, we await those messages, just as in +the other message-passing examples we have seen. -We’ve seen that even though Rust is capable of implementing object-oriented -design patterns, other patterns, such as encoding state into the type system, -are also available in Rust. These patterns have different trade-offs. Although -you might be very familiar with object-oriented patterns, rethinking the -problem to take advantage of Rust’s features can provide benefits, such as -preventing some bugs at compile time. Object-oriented patterns won’t always be -the best solution in Rust due to certain features, like ownership, that -object-oriented languages don’t have. +To return to the examples we opened the chapter with: you could imagine running +a set of video encoding tasks using a dedicated thread, because video encoding +is compute bound, but notifying the UI that those operations are done with an +async channel. Examples of this kind of mix abound! ## Summary -Regardless of whether you think Rust is an object-oriented language after -reading this chapter, you now know that you can use trait objects to get some -object-oriented features in Rust. Dynamic dispatch can give your code some -flexibility in exchange for a bit of runtime performance. You can use this -flexibility to implement object-oriented patterns that can help your code’s -maintainability. Rust also has other features, like ownership, that -object-oriented languages don’t have. An object-oriented pattern won’t always -be the best way to take advantage of Rust’s strengths, but it is an available -option. +This isn’t the last you’ll see of concurrency in this book: the project in +Chapter 21 will use the concepts in this chapter in a more realistic situation +than the smaller examples discussed here—and compare more directly what it looks +like to solve these kinds of problems with threading vs. with tasks and futures. -Next, we’ll look at patterns, which are another of Rust’s features that enable -lots of flexibility. We’ve looked at them briefly throughout the book but -haven’t seen their full capability yet. Let’s go! +Whether with threads, with futures and tasks, or with the combination of them +all, Rust gives you the tools you need to write safe, fast, concurrent +code—whether for a high-throughput web server or an embedded operating system. +Next, we’ll talk about idiomatic ways to model problems and structure solutions +as your Rust programs get bigger. In addition, we’ll discuss how Rust’s idioms +relate to those you might be familiar with from object-oriented programming. diff --git a/nostarch/chapter18.md b/nostarch/chapter18.md index 40c7f10a1..946d20a11 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter18.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter18.md @@ -6,1287 +6,1228 @@ directory, so all fixes need to be made in `/src/`. [TOC] -# Patterns and Matching - -*Patterns* are a special syntax in Rust for matching against the structure of -types, both complex and simple. Using patterns in conjunction with `match` -expressions and other constructs gives you more control over a program’s -control flow. A pattern consists of some combination of the following: - -* Literals -* Destructured arrays, enums, structs, or tuples -* Variables -* Wildcards -* Placeholders - -Some example patterns include `x`, `(a, 3)`, and `Some(Color::Red)`. In the -contexts in which patterns are valid, these components describe the shape of -data. Our program then matches values against the patterns to determine whether -it has the correct shape of data to continue running a particular piece of code. +# Object-Oriented Programming Features + +Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a way of modeling programs. Objects as a +programmatic concept were introduced in the programming language Simula in the +1960s. Those objects influenced Alan Kay’s programming architecture in which +objects pass messages to each other. To describe this architecture, he coined +the term *object-oriented programming* in 1967. Many competing definitions +describe what OOP is, and by some of these definitions Rust is object oriented +but by others it is not. In this chapter, we’ll explore certain characteristics +that are commonly considered object oriented and how those characteristics +translate to idiomatic Rust. We’ll then show you how to implement an +object-oriented design pattern in Rust and discuss the trade-offs of doing so +versus implementing a solution using some of Rust’s strengths instead. + +## Characteristics of Object-Oriented Languages + +There is no consensus in the programming community about what features a +language must have to be considered object oriented. Rust is influenced by many +programming paradigms, including OOP; for example, we explored the features +that came from functional programming in Chapter 13. Arguably, OOP languages +share certain common characteristics, namely objects, encapsulation, and +inheritance. Let’s look at what each of those characteristics means and whether +Rust supports it. + +### Objects Contain Data and Behavior + +The book *Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software* by +Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, and John Vlissides (Addison-Wesley, +1994), colloquially referred to as *The Gang of Four* book, is a catalog of +object-oriented design patterns. It defines OOP in this way: + +Object-oriented programs are made up of objects. An *object* packages both data +and the procedures that operate on that data. The procedures are typically +called *methods* or *operations*. + +Using this definition, Rust is object oriented: structs and enums have data, +and `impl` blocks provide methods on structs and enums. Even though structs and +enums with methods aren’t *called* objects, they provide the same +functionality, according to the Gang of Four’s definition of objects. + +### Encapsulation That Hides Implementation Details + +Another aspect commonly associated with OOP is the idea of *encapsulation*, +which means that the implementation details of an object aren’t accessible to +code using that object. Therefore, the only way to interact with an object is +through its public API; code using the object shouldn’t be able to reach into +the object’s internals and change data or behavior directly. This enables the +programmer to change and refactor an object’s internals without needing to +change the code that uses the object. + +We discussed how to control encapsulation in Chapter 7: we can use the `pub` +keyword to decide which modules, types, functions, and methods in our code +should be public, and by default everything else is private. For example, we +can define a struct `AveragedCollection` that has a field containing a vector +of `i32` values. The struct can also have a field that contains the average of +the values in the vector, meaning the average doesn’t have to be computed on +demand whenever anyone needs it. In other words, `AveragedCollection` will +cache the calculated average for us. Listing 17-1 has the definition of the +`AveragedCollection` struct. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +pub struct AveragedCollection { + list: Vec<i32>, + average: f64, +} +``` -To use a pattern, we compare it to some value. If the pattern matches the -value, we use the value parts in our code. Recall the `match` expressions in -Chapter 6 that used patterns, such as the coin-sorting machine example. If the -value fits the shape of the pattern, we can use the named pieces. If it -doesn’t, the code associated with the pattern won’t run. +Listing 17-1: An `AveragedCollection` struct that maintains a list of integers +and the average of the items in the collection -This chapter is a reference on all things related to patterns. We’ll cover the -valid places to use patterns, the difference between refutable and irrefutable -patterns, and the different kinds of pattern syntax that you might see. By the -end of the chapter, you’ll know how to use patterns to express many concepts in -a clear way. +The struct is marked `pub` so that other code can use it, but the fields within +the struct remain private. This is important in this case because we want to +ensure that whenever a value is added or removed from the list, the average is +also updated. We do this by implementing `add`, `remove`, and `average` methods +on the struct, as shown in Listing 17-2. -## All the Places Patterns Can Be Used +Filename: src/lib.rs -Patterns pop up in a number of places in Rust, and you’ve been using them a lot -without realizing it! This section discusses all the places where patterns are -valid. +``` +impl AveragedCollection { + pub fn add(&mut self, value: i32) { + self.list.push(value); + self.update_average(); + } -### match Arms + pub fn remove(&mut self) -> Option<i32> { + let result = self.list.pop(); + match result { + Some(value) => { + self.update_average(); + Some(value) + } + None => None, + } + } -As discussed in Chapter 6, we use patterns in the arms of `match` expressions. -Formally, `match` expressions are defined as the keyword `match`, a value to -match on, and one or more match arms that consist of a pattern and an -expression to run if the value matches that arm’s pattern, like this: + pub fn average(&self) -> f64 { + self.average + } -``` -match VALUE { - PATTERN => EXPRESSION, - PATTERN => EXPRESSION, - PATTERN => EXPRESSION, + fn update_average(&mut self) { + let total: i32 = self.list.iter().sum(); + self.average = total as f64 / self.list.len() as f64; + } } ``` -For example, here’s the `match` expression from Listing 6-5 that matches on an -`Option<i32>` value in the variable `x`: - -``` -match x { - None => None, - Some(i) => Some(i + 1), +Listing 17-2: Implementations of the public methods `add`, `remove`, and +`average` on `AveragedCollection` + +The public methods `add`, `remove`, and `average` are the only ways to access +or modify data in an instance of `AveragedCollection`. When an item is added to +`list` using the `add` method or removed using the `remove` method, the +implementations of each call the private `update_average` method that handles +updating the `average` field as well. + +We leave the `list` and `average` fields private so there is no way for +external code to add or remove items to or from the `list` field directly; +otherwise, the `average` field might become out of sync when the `list` +changes. The `average` method returns the value in the `average` field, +allowing external code to read the `average` but not modify it. + +Because we’ve encapsulated the implementation details of the struct +`AveragedCollection`, we can easily change aspects, such as the data structure, +in the future. For instance, we could use a `HashSet<i32>` instead of a +`Vec<i32>` for the `list` field. As long as the signatures of the `add`, +`remove`, and `average` public methods stayed the same, code using +`AveragedCollection` wouldn’t need to change. If we made `list` public instead, +this wouldn’t necessarily be the case: `HashSet<i32>` and `Vec<i32>` have +different methods for adding and removing items, so the external code would +likely have to change if it were modifying `list` directly. + +If encapsulation is a required aspect for a language to be considered object +oriented, then Rust meets that requirement. The option to use `pub` or not for +different parts of code enables encapsulation of implementation details. + +### Inheritance as a Type System and as Code Sharing + +*Inheritance* is a mechanism whereby an object can inherit elements from +another object’s definition, thus gaining the parent object’s data and behavior +without you having to define them again. + +If a language must have inheritance to be object oriented, then Rust is not +such a language. There is no way to define a struct that inherits the parent +struct’s fields and method implementations without using a macro. + +However, if you’re used to having inheritance in your programming toolbox, you +can use other solutions in Rust, depending on your reason for reaching for +inheritance in the first place. + +You would choose inheritance for two main reasons. One is for reuse of code: +you can implement particular behavior for one type, and inheritance enables you +to reuse that implementation for a different type. You can do this in a limited +way in Rust code using default trait method implementations, which you saw in +Listing 10-14 when we added a default implementation of the `summarize` method +on the `Summary` trait. Any type implementing the `Summary` trait would have +the `summarize` method available on it without any further code. This is +similar to a parent class having an implementation of a method and an +inheriting child class also having the implementation of the method. We can +also override the default implementation of the `summarize` method when we +implement the `Summary` trait, which is similar to a child class overriding the +implementation of a method inherited from a parent class. + +The other reason to use inheritance relates to the type system: to enable a +child type to be used in the same places as the parent type. This is also +called *polymorphism*, which means that you can substitute multiple objects for +each other at runtime if they share certain characteristics. + +> ### Polymorphism +> +> To many people, polymorphism is synonymous with inheritance. But it’s +actually a more general concept that refers to code that can work with data of +multiple types. For inheritance, those types are generally subclasses. +> +> Rust instead uses generics to abstract over different possible types and +trait bounds to impose constraints on what those types must provide. This is +sometimes called *bounded parametric polymorphism*. + +Inheritance has recently fallen out of favor as a programming design solution +in many programming languages because it’s often at risk of sharing more code +than necessary. Subclasses shouldn’t always share all characteristics of their +parent class but will do so with inheritance. This can make a program’s design +less flexible. It also introduces the possibility of calling methods on +subclasses that don’t make sense or that cause errors because the methods don’t +apply to the subclass. In addition, some languages will only allow single +inheritance (meaning a subclass can only inherit from one class), further +restricting the flexibility of a program’s design. + +For these reasons, Rust takes the different approach of using trait objects +instead of inheritance. Let’s look at how trait objects enable polymorphism in +Rust. + +## Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types + +In Chapter 8, we mentioned that one limitation of vectors is that they can +store elements of only one type. We created a workaround in Listing 8-9 where +we defined a `SpreadsheetCell` enum that had variants to hold integers, floats, +and text. This meant we could store different types of data in each cell and +still have a vector that represented a row of cells. This is a perfectly good +solution when our interchangeable items are a fixed set of types that we know +when our code is compiled. + +However, sometimes we want our library user to be able to extend the set of +types that are valid in a particular situation. To show how we might achieve +this, we’ll create an example graphical user interface (GUI) tool that iterates +through a list of items, calling a `draw` method on each one to draw it to the +screen—a common technique for GUI tools. We’ll create a library crate called +`gui` that contains the structure of a GUI library. This crate might include +some types for people to use, such as `Button` or `TextField`. In addition, +`gui` users will want to create their own types that can be drawn: for +instance, one programmer might add an `Image` and another might add a +`SelectBox`. + +We won’t implement a full-fledged GUI library for this example but will show +how the pieces would fit together. At the time of writing the library, we can’t +know and define all the types other programmers might want to create. But we do +know that `gui` needs to keep track of many values of different types, and it +needs to call a `draw` method on each of these differently typed values. It +doesn’t need to know exactly what will happen when we call the `draw` method, +just that the value will have that method available for us to call. + +To do this in a language with inheritance, we might define a class named +`Component` that has a method named `draw` on it. The other classes, such as +`Button`, `Image`, and `SelectBox`, would inherit from `Component` and thus +inherit the `draw` method. They could each override the `draw` method to define +their custom behavior, but the framework could treat all of the types as if +they were `Component` instances and call `draw` on them. But because Rust +doesn’t have inheritance, we need another way to structure the `gui` library to +allow users to extend it with new types. + +### Defining a Trait for Common Behavior + +To implement the behavior we want `gui` to have, we’ll define a trait named +`Draw` that will have one method named `draw`. Then we can define a vector that +takes a *trait object*. A trait object points to both an instance of a type +implementing our specified trait and a table used to look up trait methods on +that type at runtime. We create a trait object by specifying some sort of +pointer, such as a `&` reference or a `Box<T>` smart pointer, then the `dyn` +keyword, and then specifying the relevant trait. (We’ll talk about the reason +trait objects must use a pointer in “Dynamically Sized Types and the Sized +Trait” on page XX.) We can use trait objects in place of a generic or concrete +type. Wherever we use a trait object, Rust’s type system will ensure at compile +time that any value used in that context will implement the trait object’s +trait. Consequently, we don’t need to know all the possible types at compile +time. + +We’ve mentioned that, in Rust, we refrain from calling structs and enums +“objects” to distinguish them from other languages’ objects. In a struct or +enum, the data in the struct fields and the behavior in `impl` blocks are +separated, whereas in other languages, the data and behavior combined into one +concept is often labeled an object. However, trait objects *are* more like +objects in other languages in the sense that they combine data and behavior. +But trait objects differ from traditional objects in that we can’t add data to +a trait object. Trait objects aren’t as generally useful as objects in other +languages: their specific purpose is to allow abstraction across common +behavior. + +Listing 17-3 shows how to define a trait named `Draw` with one method named +`draw`. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +pub trait Draw { + fn draw(&self); } ``` -The patterns in this `match` expression are the `None` and `Some(i)` to the -left of each arrow. - -One requirement for `match` expressions is that they need to be *exhaustive* in -the sense that all possibilities for the value in the `match` expression must -be accounted for. One way to ensure you’ve covered every possibility is to have -a catchall pattern for the last arm: for example, a variable name matching any -value can never fail and thus covers every remaining case. - -The particular pattern `_` will match anything, but it never binds to a -variable, so it’s often used in the last match arm. The `_` pattern can be -useful when you want to ignore any value not specified, for example. We’ll -cover the `_` pattern in more detail in “Ignoring Values in a Pattern” on page -XX. - -### Conditional if let Expressions - -In Chapter 6, we discussed how to use `if let` expressions mainly as a shorter -way to write the equivalent of a `match` that only matches one case. -Optionally, `if let` can have a corresponding `else` containing code to run if -the pattern in the `if let` doesn’t match. +Listing 17-3: Definition of the `Draw` trait -Listing 18-1 shows that it’s also possible to mix and match `if let`, `else -if`, and `else if let` expressions. Doing so gives us more flexibility than a -`match` expression in which we can express only one value to compare with the -patterns. Also, Rust doesn’t require that the conditions in a series of `if -let`, `else if`, and `else if let` arms relate to each other. +This syntax should look familiar from our discussions on how to define traits +in Chapter 10. Next comes some new syntax: Listing 17-4 defines a struct named +`Screen` that holds a vector named `components`. This vector is of type +`Box<dyn Draw>`, which is a trait object; it’s a stand-in for any type inside a +`Box` that implements the `Draw` trait. -The code in Listing 18-1 determines what color to make your background based on -a series of checks for several conditions. For this example, we’ve created -variables with hardcoded values that a real program might receive from user -input. - -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -fn main() { - let favorite_color: Option<&str> = None; - let is_tuesday = false; - let age: Result<u8, _> = "34".parse(); - - 1 if let Some(color) = favorite_color { - 2 println!( - "Using your favorite, {color}, as the background" - ); - 3 } else if is_tuesday { - 4 println!("Tuesday is green day!"); - 5 } else if let Ok(age) = age { - 6 if age > 30 { - 7 println!("Using purple as the background color"); - } else { - 8 println!("Using orange as the background color"); - } - 9 } else { - 10 println!("Using blue as the background color"); - } +pub struct Screen { + pub components: Vec<Box<dyn Draw>>, } ``` -Listing 18-1: Mixing `if let`, `else if`, `else if let`, and `else` - -If the user specifies a favorite color [1], that color is used as the -background [2]. If no favorite color is specified and today is Tuesday [3], the -background color is green [4]. Otherwise, if the user specifies their age as a -string and we can parse it as a number successfully [5], the color is either -purple [7] or orange [8] depending on the value of the number [6]. If none of -these conditions apply [9], the background color is blue [10]. - -This conditional structure lets us support complex requirements. With the -hardcoded values we have here, this example will print `Using purple as the -background color`. - -You can see that `if let` can also introduce shadowed variables in the same way -that `match` arms can: the line `if let Ok(age) = age` [5] introduces a new -shadowed `age` variable that contains the value inside the `Ok` variant. This -means we need to place the `if age > 30` condition [6] within that block: we -can’t combine these two conditions into `if let Ok(age) = age && age > 30`. The -shadowed `age` we want to compare to 30 isn’t valid until the new scope starts -with the curly bracket. - -The downside of using `if let` expressions is that the compiler doesn’t check -for exhaustiveness, whereas with `match` expressions it does. If we omitted the -last `else` block [9] and therefore missed handling some cases, the compiler -would not alert us to the possible logic bug. +Listing 17-4: Definition of the `Screen` struct with a `components` field +holding a vector of trait objects that implement the `Draw` trait -### while let Conditional Loops +On the `Screen` struct, we’ll define a method named `run` that will call the +`draw` method on each of its `components`, as shown in Listing 17-5. -Similar in construction to `if let`, the `while let` conditional loop allows a -`while` loop to run for as long as a pattern continues to match. In Listing -18-2, we code a `while let` loop that uses a vector as a stack and prints the -values in the vector in the opposite order in which they were pushed. - -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -let mut stack = Vec::new(); - -stack.push(1); -stack.push(2); -stack.push(3); - -while let Some(top) = stack.pop() { - println!("{top}"); +impl Screen { + pub fn run(&self) { + for component in self.components.iter() { + component.draw(); + } + } } ``` -Listing 18-2: Using a `while let` loop to print values for as long as -`stack.pop()` returns `Some` +Listing 17-5: A `run` method on `Screen` that calls the `draw` method on each +component -This example prints `3`, `2`, and then `1`. The `pop` method takes the last -element out of the vector and returns `Some(value)`. If the vector is empty, -`pop` returns `None`. The `while` loop continues running the code in its block -as long as `pop` returns `Some`. When `pop` returns `None`, the loop stops. We -can use `while let` to pop every element off our stack. +This works differently from defining a struct that uses a generic type +parameter with trait bounds. A generic type parameter can only be substituted +with one concrete type at a time, whereas trait objects allow for multiple +concrete types to fill in for the trait object at runtime. For example, we +could have defined the `Screen` struct using a generic type and a trait bound, +as in Listing 17-6. -### for Loops - -In a `for` loop, the value that directly follows the keyword `for` is a -pattern. For example, in `for x in y`, the `x` is the pattern. Listing 18-3 -demonstrates how to use a pattern in a `for` loop to *destructure*, or break -apart, a tuple as part of the `for` loop. - -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -let v = vec!['a', 'b', 'c']; +pub struct Screen<T: Draw> { + pub components: Vec<T>, +} -for (index, value) in v.iter().enumerate() { - println!("{value} is at index {index}"); +impl<T> Screen<T> +where + T: Draw, +{ + pub fn run(&self) { + for component in self.components.iter() { + component.draw(); + } + } } ``` -Listing 18-3: Using a pattern in a `for` loop to destructure a tuple +Listing 17-6: An alternate implementation of the `Screen` struct and its `run` +method using generics and trait bounds -The code in Listing 18-3 will print the following: +This restricts us to a `Screen` instance that has a list of components all of +type `Button` or all of type `TextField`. If you’ll only ever have homogeneous +collections, using generics and trait bounds is preferable because the +definitions will be monomorphized at compile time to use the concrete types. -``` -a is at index 0 -b is at index 1 -c is at index 2 -``` +On the other hand, with the method using trait objects, one `Screen` instance +can hold a `Vec<T>` that contains a `Box<Button>` as well as a +`Box<TextField>`. Let’s look at how this works, and then we’ll talk about the +runtime performance implications. -We adapt an iterator using the `enumerate` method so it produces a value and -the index for that value, placed into a tuple. The first value produced is the -tuple `(0, 'a')`. When this value is matched to the pattern `(index, value)`, -`index` will be `0` and `value` will be `'a'`, printing the first line of the -output. +### Implementing the Trait -### let Statements +Now we’ll add some types that implement the `Draw` trait. We’ll provide the +`Button` type. Again, actually implementing a GUI library is beyond the scope +of this book, so the `draw` method won’t have any useful implementation in its +body. To imagine what the implementation might look like, a `Button` struct +might have fields for `width`, `height`, and `label`, as shown in Listing 17-7. -Prior to this chapter, we had only explicitly discussed using patterns with -`match` and `if let`, but in fact, we’ve used patterns in other places as well, -including in `let` statements. For example, consider this straightforward -variable assignment with `let`: +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -let x = 5; -``` - -Every time you’ve used a `let` statement like this you’ve been using patterns, -although you might not have realized it! More formally, a `let` statement looks -like this: - -``` -let PATTERN = EXPRESSION; -``` - -In statements like `let x = 5;` with a variable name in the PATTERN slot, the -variable name is just a particularly simple form of a pattern. Rust compares -the expression against the pattern and assigns any names it finds. So, in the -`let x = 5;` example, `x` is a pattern that means “bind what matches here to -the variable `x`.” Because the name `x` is the whole pattern, this pattern -effectively means “bind everything to the variable `x`, whatever the value is.” - -To see the pattern-matching aspect of `let` more clearly, consider Listing -18-4, which uses a pattern with `let` to destructure a tuple. +pub struct Button { + pub width: u32, + pub height: u32, + pub label: String, +} -``` -let (x, y, z) = (1, 2, 3); +impl Draw for Button { + fn draw(&self) { + // code to actually draw a button + } +} ``` -Listing 18-4: Using a pattern to destructure a tuple and create three variables -at once +Listing 17-7: A `Button` struct that implements the `Draw` trait -Here, we match a tuple against a pattern. Rust compares the value `(1, 2, 3)` -to the pattern `(x, y, z)` and sees that the value matches the pattern, in that -it sees that the number of elements is the same in both, so Rust binds `1` to -`x`, `2` to `y`, and `3` to `z`. You can think of this tuple pattern as nesting -three individual variable patterns inside it. +The `width`, `height`, and `label` fields on `Button` will differ from the +fields on other components; for example, a `TextField` type might have those +same fields plus a `placeholder` field. Each of the types we want to draw on +the screen will implement the `Draw` trait but will use different code in the +`draw` method to define how to draw that particular type, as `Button` has here +(without the actual GUI code, as mentioned). The `Button` type, for instance, +might have an additional `impl` block containing methods related to what +happens when a user clicks the button. These kinds of methods won’t apply to +types like `TextField`. -If the number of elements in the pattern doesn’t match the number of elements -in the tuple, the overall type won’t match and we’ll get a compiler error. For -example, Listing 18-5 shows an attempt to destructure a tuple with three -elements into two variables, which won’t work. +If someone using our library decides to implement a `SelectBox` struct that has +`width`, `height`, and `options` fields, they would implement the `Draw` trait +on the `SelectBox` type as well, as shown in Listing 17-8. -``` -let (x, y) = (1, 2, 3); -``` - -Listing 18-5: Incorrectly constructing a pattern whose variables don’t match -the number of elements in the tuple - -Attempting to compile this code results in this type error: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -error[E0308]: mismatched types - --> src/main.rs:2:9 - | -2 | let (x, y) = (1, 2, 3); - | ^^^^^^ --------- this expression has type `({integer}, {integer}, -{integer})` - | | - | expected a tuple with 3 elements, found one with 2 elements - | - = note: expected tuple `({integer}, {integer}, {integer})` - found tuple `(_, _)` -``` - -To fix the error, we could ignore one or more of the values in the tuple using -`_` or `..`, as you’ll see in “Ignoring Values in a Pattern” on page XX. If the -problem is that we have too many variables in the pattern, the solution is to -make the types match by removing variables so the number of variables equals -the number of elements in the tuple. +use gui::Draw; -### Function Parameters - -Function parameters can also be patterns. The code in Listing 18-6, which -declares a function named `foo` that takes one parameter named `x` of type -`i32`, should by now look familiar. +struct SelectBox { + width: u32, + height: u32, + options: Vec<String>, +} -``` -fn foo(x: i32) { - // code goes here +impl Draw for SelectBox { + fn draw(&self) { + // code to actually draw a select box + } } ``` -Listing 18-6: A function signature using patterns in the parameters +Listing 17-8: Another crate using `gui` and implementing the `Draw` trait on a +`SelectBox` struct -The `x` part is a pattern! As we did with `let`, we could match a tuple in a -function’s arguments to the pattern. Listing 18-7 splits the values in a tuple -as we pass it to a function. +Our library’s user can now write their `main` function to create a `Screen` +instance. To the `Screen` instance, they can add a `SelectBox` and a `Button` +by putting each in a `Box<T>` to become a trait object. They can then call the +`run` method on the `Screen` instance, which will call `draw` on each of the +components. Listing 17-9 shows this implementation. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn print_coordinates(&(x, y): &(i32, i32)) { - println!("Current location: ({x}, {y})"); -} +use gui::{Button, Screen}; fn main() { - let point = (3, 5); - print_coordinates(&point); + let screen = Screen { + components: vec![ + Box::new(SelectBox { + width: 75, + height: 10, + options: vec![ + String::from("Yes"), + String::from("Maybe"), + String::from("No"), + ], + }), + Box::new(Button { + width: 50, + height: 10, + label: String::from("OK"), + }), + ], + }; + + screen.run(); } ``` -Listing 18-7: A function with parameters that destructure a tuple - -This code prints `Current location: (3, 5)`. The values `&(3, 5)` match the -pattern `&(x, y)`, so `x` is the value `3` and `y` is the value `5`. - -We can also use patterns in closure parameter lists in the same way as in -function parameter lists because closures are similar to functions, as -discussed in Chapter 13. - -At this point, you’ve seen several ways to use patterns, but patterns don’t -work the same in every place we can use them. In some places, the patterns must -be irrefutable; in other circumstances, they can be refutable. We’ll discuss -these two concepts next. - -## Refutability: Whether a Pattern Might Fail to Match - -Patterns come in two forms: refutable and irrefutable. Patterns that will match -for any possible value passed are *irrefutable*. An example would be `x` in the -statement `let x = 5;` because `x` matches anything and therefore cannot fail -to match. Patterns that can fail to match for some possible value are -*refutable*. An example would be `Some(x)` in the expression `if let Some(x) = -a_value` because if the value in the `a_value` variable is `None` rather than -`Some`, the `Some(x)` pattern will not match. - -Function parameters, `let` statements, and `for` loops can only accept -irrefutable patterns because the program cannot do anything meaningful when -values don’t match. The `if let` and `while let` expressions accept refutable -and irrefutable patterns, but the compiler warns against irrefutable patterns -because, by definition, they’re intended to handle possible failure: the -functionality of a conditional is in its ability to perform differently -depending on success or failure. - -In general, you shouldn’t have to worry about the distinction between refutable -and irrefutable patterns; however, you do need to be familiar with the concept -of refutability so you can respond when you see it in an error message. In -those cases, you’ll need to change either the pattern or the construct you’re -using the pattern with, depending on the intended behavior of the code. - -Let’s look at an example of what happens when we try to use a refutable pattern -where Rust requires an irrefutable pattern and vice versa. Listing 18-8 shows a -`let` statement, but for the pattern, we’ve specified `Some(x)`, a refutable -pattern. As you might expect, this code will not compile. +Listing 17-9: Using trait objects to store values of different types that +implement the same trait -``` -let Some(x) = some_option_value; -``` +When we wrote the library, we didn’t know that someone might add the +`SelectBox` type, but our `Screen` implementation was able to operate on the +new type and draw it because `SelectBox` implements the `Draw` trait, which +means it implements the `draw` method. -Listing 18-8: Attempting to use a refutable pattern with `let` +This concept—of being concerned only with the messages a value responds to +rather than the value’s concrete type—is similar to the concept of *duck +typing* in dynamically typed languages: if it walks like a duck and quacks like +a duck, then it must be a duck! In the implementation of `run` on `Screen` in +Listing 17-5, `run` doesn’t need to know what the concrete type of each +component is. It doesn’t check whether a component is an instance of a `Button` +or a `SelectBox`, it just calls the `draw` method on the component. By +specifying `Box<dyn Draw>` as the type of the values in the `components` +vector, we’ve defined `Screen` to need values that we can call the `draw` +method on. -If `some_option_value` were a `None` value, it would fail to match the pattern -`Some(x)`, meaning the pattern is refutable. However, the `let` statement can -only accept an irrefutable pattern because there is nothing valid the code can -do with a `None` value. At compile time, Rust will complain that we’ve tried to -use a refutable pattern where an irrefutable pattern is required: +The advantage of using trait objects and Rust’s type system to write code +similar to code using duck typing is that we never have to check whether a +value implements a particular method at runtime or worry about getting errors +if a value doesn’t implement a method but we call it anyway. Rust won’t compile +our code if the values don’t implement the traits that the trait objects need. -``` -error[E0005]: refutable pattern in local binding: `None` not covered - --> src/main.rs:3:9 - | -3 | let Some(x) = some_option_value; - | ^^^^^^^ pattern `None` not covered - | - = note: `let` bindings require an "irrefutable pattern", like a `struct` or -an `enum` with only one variant - = note: for more information, visit -https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch18-02-refutability.html - = note: the matched value is of type `Option<i32>` -help: you might want to use `if let` to ignore the variant that isn't matched - | -3 | let x = if let Some(x) = some_option_value { x } else { todo!() }; - | ++++++++++ ++++++++++++++++++++++ -``` - -Because we didn’t cover (and couldn’t cover!) every valid value with the -pattern `Some(x)`, Rust rightfully produces a compiler error. +For example, Listing 17-10 shows what happens if we try to create a `Screen` +with a `String` as a component. -If we have a refutable pattern where an irrefutable pattern is needed, we can -fix it by changing the code that uses the pattern: instead of using `let`, we -can use `if let`. Then, if the pattern doesn’t match, the code will just skip -the code in the curly brackets, giving it a way to continue validly. Listing -18-9 shows how to fix the code in Listing 18-8. +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -if let Some(x) = some_option_value { - println!("{x}"); -} -``` +use gui::Screen; -Listing 18-9: Using `if let` and a block with refutable patterns instead of -`let` - -We’ve given the code an out! This code is perfectly valid, although it means we -cannot use an irrefutable pattern without receiving an error. If we give `if -let` a pattern that will always match, such as `x`, as shown in Listing 18-10, -the compiler will give a warning. +fn main() { + let screen = Screen { + components: vec![Box::new(String::from("Hi"))], + }; -``` -if let x = 5 { - println!("{x}"); -}; + screen.run(); +} ``` -Listing 18-10: Attempting to use an irrefutable pattern with `if let` +Listing 17-10: Attempting to use a type that doesn’t implement the trait +object’s trait -Rust complains that it doesn’t make sense to use `if let` with an irrefutable -pattern: +We’ll get this error because `String` doesn’t implement the `Draw` trait: ``` -warning: irrefutable `if let` pattern - --> src/main.rs:2:8 +error[E0277]: the trait bound `String: Draw` is not satisfied + --> src/main.rs:5:26 | -2 | if let x = 5 { - | ^^^^^^^^^ +5 | components: vec![Box::new(String::from("Hi"))], + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `Draw` is +not implemented for `String` | - = note: `#[warn(irrefutable_let_patterns)]` on by default - = note: this pattern will always match, so the `if let` is -useless - = help: consider replacing the `if let` with a `let` -``` - -For this reason, match arms must use refutable patterns, except for the last -arm, which should match any remaining values with an irrefutable pattern. Rust -allows us to use an irrefutable pattern in a `match` with only one arm, but -this syntax isn’t particularly useful and could be replaced with a simpler -`let` statement. - -Now that you know where to use patterns and the difference between refutable -and irrefutable patterns, let’s cover all the syntax we can use to create -patterns. - -## Pattern Syntax - -In this section, we gather all the syntax that is valid in patterns and discuss -why and when you might want to use each one. - -### Matching Literals - -As you saw in Chapter 6, you can match patterns against literals directly. The -following code gives some examples: + = note: required for the cast to the object type `dyn Draw` +``` + +This error lets us know that either we’re passing something to `Screen` that we +didn’t mean to pass and so should pass a different type, or we should implement +`Draw` on `String` so that `Screen` is able to call `draw` on it. + +### Trait Objects Perform Dynamic Dispatch + +Recall in “Performance of Code Using Generics” on page XX our discussion on the +monomorphization process performed by the compiler when we use trait bounds on +generics: the compiler generates nongeneric implementations of functions and +methods for each concrete type that we use in place of a generic type +parameter. The code that results from monomorphization is doing *static +dispatch*, which is when the compiler knows what method you’re calling at +compile time. This is opposed to *dynamic dispatch*, which is when the compiler +can’t tell at compile time which method you’re calling. In dynamic dispatch +cases, the compiler emits code that at runtime will figure out which method to +call. + +When we use trait objects, Rust must use dynamic dispatch. The compiler doesn’t +know all the types that might be used with the code that’s using trait objects, +so it doesn’t know which method implemented on which type to call. Instead, at +runtime, Rust uses the pointers inside the trait object to know which method to +call. This lookup incurs a runtime cost that doesn’t occur with static +dispatch. Dynamic dispatch also prevents the compiler from choosing to inline a +method’s code, which in turn prevents some optimizations. However, we did get +extra flexibility in the code that we wrote in Listing 17-5 and were able to +support in Listing 17-9, so it’s a trade-off to consider. + +## Implementing an Object-Oriented Design Pattern + +The *state pattern* is an object-oriented design pattern. The crux of the +pattern is that we define a set of states a value can have internally. The +states are represented by a set of *state objects*, and the value’s behavior +changes based on its state. We’re going to work through an example of a blog +post struct that has a field to hold its state, which will be a state object +from the set “draft,” “review,” or “published.” + +The state objects share functionality: in Rust, of course, we use structs and +traits rather than objects and inheritance. Each state object is responsible +for its own behavior and for governing when it should change into another +state. The value that holds a state object knows nothing about the different +behavior of the states or when to transition between states. + +The advantage of using the state pattern is that, when the business +requirements of the program change, we won’t need to change the code of the +value holding the state or the code that uses the value. We’ll only need to +update the code inside one of the state objects to change its rules or perhaps +add more state objects. + +First we’re going to implement the state pattern in a more traditional +object-oriented way, then we’ll use an approach that’s a bit more natural in +Rust. Let’s dig in to incrementally implement a blog post workflow using the +state pattern. + +The final functionality will look like this: + +1. A blog post starts as an empty draft. +1. When the draft is done, a review of the post is requested. +1. When the post is approved, it gets published. +1. Only published blog posts return content to print, so unapproved posts can’t +accidentally be published. + +Any other changes attempted on a post should have no effect. For example, if we +try to approve a draft blog post before we’ve requested a review, the post +should remain an unpublished draft. + +Listing 17-11 shows this workflow in code form: this is an example usage of the +API we’ll implement in a library crate named `blog`. This won’t compile yet +because we haven’t implemented the `blog` crate. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -let x = 1; - -match x { - 1 => println!("one"), - 2 => println!("two"), - 3 => println!("three"), - _ => println!("anything"), -} -``` - -This code prints `one` because the value in `x` is `1`. This syntax is useful -when you want your code to take an action if it gets a particular concrete -value. - -### Matching Named Variables - -Named variables are irrefutable patterns that match any value, and we’ve used -them many times in this book. However, there is a complication when you use -named variables in `match` expressions. Because `match` starts a new scope, -variables declared as part of a pattern inside the `match` expression will -shadow those with the same name outside the `match` construct, as is the case -with all variables. In Listing 18-11, we declare a variable named `x` with the -value `Some(5)` and a variable `y` with the value `10`. We then create a -`match` expression on the value `x`. Look at the patterns in the match arms and -`println!` at the end, and try to figure out what the code will print before -running this code or reading further. +use blog::Post; -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` fn main() { - 1 let x = Some(5); - 2 let y = 10; - - match x { - 3 Some(50) => println!("Got 50"), - 4 Some(y) => println!("Matched, y = {y}"), - 5 _ => println!("Default case, x = {:?}", x), - } - - 6 println!("at the end: x = {:?}, y = {y}", x); -} -``` - -Listing 18-11: A `match` expression with an arm that introduces a shadowed -variable `y` - -Let’s walk through what happens when the `match` expression runs. The pattern -in the first match arm [3] doesn’t match the defined value of `x` [1], so the -code continues. - -The pattern in the second match arm [4] introduces a new variable named `y` -that will match any value inside a `Some` value. Because we’re in a new scope -inside the `match` expression, this is a new `y` variable, not the `y` we -declared at the beginning with the value `10` [2]. This new `y` binding will -match any value inside a `Some`, which is what we have in `x`. Therefore, this -new `y` binds to the inner value of the `Some` in `x`. That value is `5`, so -the expression for that arm executes and prints `Matched, y = 5`. - -If `x` had been a `None` value instead of `Some(5)`, the patterns in the first -two arms wouldn’t have matched, so the value would have matched to the -underscore [5]. We didn’t introduce the `x` variable in the pattern of the -underscore arm, so the `x` in the expression is still the outer `x` that hasn’t -been shadowed. In this hypothetical case, the `match` would print `Default -case, x = None`. - -When the `match` expression is done, its scope ends, and so does the scope of -the inner `y`. The last `println!` [6] produces `at the end: x = Some(5), y = -10`. - -To create a `match` expression that compares the values of the outer `x` and -`y`, rather than introducing a shadowed variable, we would need to use a match -guard conditional instead. We’ll talk about match guards in “Extra Conditionals -with Match Guards” on page XX. - -### Multiple Patterns - -In `match` expressions, you can match multiple patterns using the `|` syntax, -which is the pattern *or* operator. For example, in the following code we match -the value of `x` against the match arms, the first of which has an *or* option, -meaning if the value of `x` matches either of the values in that arm, that -arm’s code will run: - -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` -let x = 1; - -match x { - 1 | 2 => println!("one or two"), - 3 => println!("three"), - _ => println!("anything"), -} -``` - -This code prints `one or two`. + 1 let mut post = Post::new(); -### Matching Ranges of Values with ..= + 2 post.add_text("I ate a salad for lunch today"); + 3 assert_eq!("", post.content()); -The `..=` syntax allows us to match to an inclusive range of values. In the -following code, when a pattern matches any of the values within the given -range, that arm will execute: - -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` -let x = 5; + 4 post.request_review(); + 5 assert_eq!("", post.content()); -match x { - 1..=5 => println!("one through five"), - _ => println!("something else"), + 6 post.approve(); + 7 assert_eq!("I ate a salad for lunch today", post.content()); } ``` -If `x` is `1`, `2`, `3`, `4`, or `5`, the first arm will match. This syntax is -more convenient for multiple match values than using the `|` operator to -express the same idea; if we were to use `|`, we would have to specify `1 | 2 | -3 | 4 | 5`. Specifying a range is much shorter, especially if we want to match, -say, any number between 1 and 1,000! +Listing 17-11: Code that demonstrates the desired behavior we want our `blog` +crate to have -The compiler checks that the range isn’t empty at compile time, and because the -only types for which Rust can tell if a range is empty or not are `char` and -numeric values, ranges are only allowed with numeric or `char` values. - -Here is an example using ranges of `char` values: - -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` -let x = 'c'; - -match x { - 'a'..='j' => println!("early ASCII letter"), - 'k'..='z' => println!("late ASCII letter"), - _ => println!("something else"), -} -``` +We want to allow the user to create a new draft blog post with `Post::new` [1]. +We want to allow text to be added to the blog post [2]. If we try to get the +post’s content immediately, before approval, we shouldn’t get any text because +the post is still a draft. We’ve added `assert_eq!` in the code for +demonstration purposes [3]. An excellent unit test for this would be to assert +that a draft blog post returns an empty string from the `content` method, but +we’re not going to write tests for this example. -Rust can tell that `'c'` is within the first pattern’s range and prints `early -ASCII letter`. +Next, we want to enable a request for a review of the post [4], and we want +`content` to return an empty string while waiting for the review [5]. When the +post receives approval [6], it should get published, meaning the text of the +post will be returned when `content` is called [7]. -### Destructuring to Break Apart Values +Notice that the only type we’re interacting with from the crate is the `Post` +type. This type will use the state pattern and will hold a value that will be +one of three state objects representing the various states a post can be +in—draft, review, or published. Changing from one state to another will be +managed internally within the `Post` type. The states change in response to the +methods called by our library’s users on the `Post` instance, but they don’t +have to manage the state changes directly. Also, users can’t make a mistake +with the states, such as publishing a post before it’s reviewed. -We can also use patterns to destructure structs, enums, and tuples to use -different parts of these values. Let’s walk through each value. +### Defining Post and Creating a New Instance in the Draft State -#### Destructuring Structs +Let’s get started on the implementation of the library! We know we need a +public `Post` struct that holds some content, so we’ll start with the +definition of the struct and an associated public `new` function to create an +instance of `Post`, as shown in Listing 17-12. We’ll also make a private +`State` trait that will define the behavior that all state objects for a `Post` +must have. -Listing 18-12 shows a `Point` struct with two fields, `x` and `y`, that we can -break apart using a pattern with a `let` statement. +Then `Post` will hold a trait object of `Box<dyn State>` inside an `Option<T>` +in a private field named `state` to hold the state object. You’ll see why the +`Option<T>` is necessary in a bit. -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -struct Point { - x: i32, - y: i32, +pub struct Post { + state: Option<Box<dyn State>>, + content: String, } -fn main() { - let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; - - let Point { x: a, y: b } = p; - assert_eq!(0, a); - assert_eq!(7, b); +impl Post { + pub fn new() -> Post { + Post { + 1 state: Some(Box::new(Draft {})), + 2 content: String::new(), + } + } } -``` - -Listing 18-12: Destructuring a struct’s fields into separate variables -This code creates the variables `a` and `b` that match the values of the `x` -and `y` fields of the `p` struct. This example shows that the names of the -variables in the pattern don’t have to match the field names of the struct. -However, it’s common to match the variable names to the field names to make it -easier to remember which variables came from which fields. Because of this -common usage, and because writing `let Point { x: x, y: y } = p;` contains a -lot of duplication, Rust has a shorthand for patterns that match struct fields: -you only need to list the name of the struct field, and the variables created -from the pattern will have the same names. Listing 18-13 behaves in the same -way as the code in Listing 18-12, but the variables created in the `let` -pattern are `x` and `y` instead of `a` and `b`. +trait State {} -Filename: src/main.rs +struct Draft {} +impl State for Draft {} ``` -struct Point { - x: i32, - y: i32, -} -fn main() { - let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; - - let Point { x, y } = p; - assert_eq!(0, x); - assert_eq!(7, y); -} -``` +Listing 17-12: Definition of a `Post` struct and a `new` function that creates +a new `Post` instance, a `State` trait, and a `Draft` struct -Listing 18-13: Destructuring struct fields using struct field shorthand +The `State` trait defines the behavior shared by different post states. The +state objects are `Draft`, `PendingReview`, and `Published`, and they will all +implement the `State` trait. For now, the trait doesn’t have any methods, and +we’ll start by defining just the `Draft` state because that is the state we +want a post to start in. -This code creates the variables `x` and `y` that match the `x` and `y` fields -of the `p` variable. The outcome is that the variables `x` and `y` contain the -values from the `p` struct. +When we create a new `Post`, we set its `state` field to a `Some` value that +holds a `Box` [1]. This `Box` points to a new instance of the `Draft` struct. +This ensures that whenever we create a new instance of `Post`, it will start +out as a draft. Because the `state` field of `Post` is private, there is no way +to create a `Post` in any other state! In the `Post::new` function, we set the +`content` field to a new, empty `String` [2]. -We can also destructure with literal values as part of the struct pattern -rather than creating variables for all the fields. Doing so allows us to test -some of the fields for particular values while creating variables to -destructure the other fields. +### Storing the Text of the Post Content -In Listing 18-14, we have a `match` expression that separates `Point` values -into three cases: points that lie directly on the `x` axis (which is true when -`y = 0`), on the `y` axis (`x = 0`), or on neither axis. +We saw in Listing 17-11 that we want to be able to call a method named +`add_text` and pass it a `&str` that is then added as the text content of the +blog post. We implement this as a method, rather than exposing the `content` +field as `pub`, so that later we can implement a method that will control how +the `content` field’s data is read. The `add_text` method is pretty +straightforward, so let’s add the implementation in Listing 17-13 to the `impl +Post` block. -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -fn main() { - let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; - - match p { - Point { x, y: 0 } => println!("On the x axis at {x}"), - Point { x: 0, y } => println!("On the y axis at {y}"), - Point { x, y } => { - println!("On neither axis: ({x}, {y})"); - } +impl Post { + --snip-- + pub fn add_text(&mut self, text: &str) { + self.content.push_str(text); } } ``` -Listing 18-14: Destructuring and matching literal values in one pattern +Listing 17-13: Implementing the `add_text` method to add text to a post’s +`content` -The first arm will match any point that lies on the `x` axis by specifying that -the `y` field matches if its value matches the literal `0`. The pattern still -creates an `x` variable that we can use in the code for this arm. +The `add_text` method takes a mutable reference to `self` because we’re +changing the `Post` instance that we’re calling `add_text` on. We then call +`push_str` on the `String` in `content` and pass the `text` argument to add to +the saved `content`. This behavior doesn’t depend on the state the post is in, +so it’s not part of the state pattern. The `add_text` method doesn’t interact +with the `state` field at all, but it is part of the behavior we want to +support. -Similarly, the second arm matches any point on the `y` axis by specifying that -the `x` field matches if its value is `0` and creates a variable `y` for the -value of the `y` field. The third arm doesn’t specify any literals, so it -matches any other `Point` and creates variables for both the `x` and `y` fields. +### Ensuring the Content of a Draft Post Is Empty -In this example, the value `p` matches the second arm by virtue of `x` -containing a `0`, so this code will print `On the y axis at 7`. +Even after we’ve called `add_text` and added some content to our post, we still +want the `content` method to return an empty string slice because the post is +still in the draft state, as shown at [3] in Listing 17-11. For now, let’s +implement the `content` method with the simplest thing that will fulfill this +requirement: always returning an empty string slice. We’ll change this later +once we implement the ability to change a post’s state so it can be published. +So far, posts can only be in the draft state, so the post content should always +be empty. Listing 17-14 shows this placeholder implementation. -Remember that a `match` expression stops checking arms once it has found the -first matching pattern, so even though `Point { x: 0, y: 0}` is on the `x` axis -and the `y` axis, this code would only print `On the x axis at 0`. - -#### Destructuring Enums - -We’ve destructured enums in this book (for example, Listing 6-5), but we -haven’t yet explicitly discussed that the pattern to destructure an enum -corresponds to the way the data stored within the enum is defined. As an -example, in Listing 18-15 we use the `Message` enum from Listing 6-2 and write -a `match` with patterns that will destructure each inner value. - -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -enum Message { - Quit, - Move { x: i32, y: i32 }, - Write(String), - ChangeColor(i32, i32, i32), -} - -fn main() { - 1 let msg = Message::ChangeColor(0, 160, 255); - - match msg { - 2 Message::Quit => { - println!( - "The Quit variant has no data to destructure." - ); - } - 3 Message::Move { x, y } => { - println!( - "Move in the x dir {x}, in the y dir {y}" - ); - } - 4 Message::Write(text) => { - println!("Text message: {text}"); - } - 5 Message::ChangeColor(r, g, b) => println!( - "Change color to red {r}, green {g}, and blue {b}" - ), +impl Post { + --snip-- + pub fn content(&self) -> &str { + "" } } ``` -Listing 18-15: Destructuring enum variants that hold different kinds of values - -This code will print `Change color to red 0, green 160, and blue 255`. Try -changing the value of `msg` [1] to see the code from the other arms run. +Listing 17-14: Adding a placeholder implementation for the `content` method on +`Post` that always returns an empty string slice -For enum variants without any data, like `Message::Quit` [2], we can’t -destructure the value any further. We can only match on the literal -`Message::Quit` value, and no variables are in that pattern. +With this added `content` method, everything in Listing 17-11 up to the line at +[3] works as intended. -For struct-like enum variants, such as `Message::Move` [3], we can use a -pattern similar to the pattern we specify to match structs. After the variant -name, we place curly brackets and then list the fields with variables so we -break apart the pieces to use in the code for this arm. Here we use the -shorthand form as we did in Listing 18-13. +### Requesting a Review Changes the Post’s State -For tuple-like enum variants, like `Message::Write` that holds a tuple with one -element [4] and `Message::ChangeColor` that holds a tuple with three elements -[5], the pattern is similar to the pattern we specify to match tuples. The -number of variables in the pattern must match the number of elements in the -variant we’re matching. +Next, we need to add functionality to request a review of a post, which should +change its state from `Draft` to `PendingReview`. Listing 17-15 shows this code. -#### Destructuring Nested Structs and Enums - -So far, our examples have all been matching structs or enums one level deep, -but matching can work on nested items too! For example, we can refactor the -code in Listing 18-15 to support RGB and HSV colors in the `ChangeColor` -message, as shown in Listing 18-16. - -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -enum Color { - Rgb(i32, i32, i32), - Hsv(i32, i32, i32), +impl Post { + --snip-- + 1 pub fn request_review(&mut self) { + 2 if let Some(s) = self.state.take() { + 3 self.state = Some(s.request_review()) + } + } } -enum Message { - Quit, - Move { x: i32, y: i32 }, - Write(String), - ChangeColor(Color), +trait State { + 4 fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State>; } -fn main() { - let msg = Message::ChangeColor(Color::Hsv(0, 160, 255)); - - match msg { - Message::ChangeColor(Color::Rgb(r, g, b)) => println!( - "Change color to red {r}, green {g}, and blue {b}" - ), - Message::ChangeColor(Color::Hsv(h, s, v)) => println!( - "Change color to hue {h}, saturation {s}, value {v}" - ), - _ => (), +struct Draft {} + +impl State for Draft { + fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { + 5 Box::new(PendingReview {}) } } -``` - -Listing 18-16: Matching on nested enums - -The pattern of the first arm in the `match` expression matches a -`Message::ChangeColor` enum variant that contains a `Color::Rgb` variant; then -the pattern binds to the three inner `i32` values. The pattern of the second -arm also matches a `Message::ChangeColor` enum variant, but the inner enum -matches `Color::Hsv` instead. We can specify these complex conditions in one -`match` expression, even though two enums are involved. - -#### Destructuring Structs and Tuples -We can mix, match, and nest destructuring patterns in even more complex ways. -The following example shows a complicated destructure where we nest structs and -tuples inside a tuple and destructure all the primitive values out: +struct PendingReview {} +impl State for PendingReview { + fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { + 6 self + } +} ``` -let ((feet, inches), Point { x, y }) = - ((3, 10), Point { x: 3, y: -10 }); -``` - -This code lets us break complex types into their component parts so we can use -the values we’re interested in separately. -Destructuring with patterns is a convenient way to use pieces of values, such -as the value from each field in a struct, separately from each other. - -### Ignoring Values in a Pattern - -You’ve seen that it’s sometimes useful to ignore values in a pattern, such as -in the last arm of a `match`, to get a catchall that doesn’t actually do -anything but does account for all remaining possible values. There are a few -ways to ignore entire values or parts of values in a pattern: using the `_` -pattern (which you’ve seen), using the `_` pattern within another pattern, -using a name that starts with an underscore, or using `..` to ignore remaining -parts of a value. Let’s explore how and why to use each of these patterns. - -#### An Entire Value with _ - -We’ve used the underscore as a wildcard pattern that will match any value but -not bind to the value. This is especially useful as the last arm in a `match` -expression, but we can also use it in any pattern, including function -parameters, as shown in Listing 18-17. - -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` -fn foo(_: i32, y: i32) { - println!("This code only uses the y parameter: {y}"); +Listing 17-15: Implementing `request_review` methods on `Post` and the `State` +trait + +We give `Post` a public method named `request_review` that will take a mutable +reference to `self` [1]. Then we call an internal `request_review` method on +the current state of `Post` [3], and this second `request_review` method +consumes the current state and returns a new state. + +We add the `request_review` method to the `State` trait [4]; all types that +implement the trait will now need to implement the `request_review` method. +Note that rather than having `self`, `&self`, or `&mut self` as the first +parameter of the method, we have `self: Box<Self>`. This syntax means the +method is only valid when called on a `Box` holding the type. This syntax takes +ownership of `Box<Self>`, invalidating the old state so the state value of the +`Post` can transform into a new state. + +To consume the old state, the `request_review` method needs to take ownership +of the state value. This is where the `Option` in the `state` field of `Post` +comes in: we call the `take` method to take the `Some` value out of the `state` +field and leave a `None` in its place because Rust doesn’t let us have +unpopulated fields in structs [2]. This lets us move the `state` value out of +`Post` rather than borrowing it. Then we’ll set the post’s `state` value to the +result of this operation. + +We need to set `state` to `None` temporarily rather than setting it directly +with code like `self.state = self.state.request_review();` to get ownership of +the `state` value. This ensures `Post` can’t use the old `state` value after +we’ve transformed it into a new state. + +The `request_review` method on `Draft` returns a new, boxed instance of a new +`PendingReview` struct [5], which represents the state when a post is waiting +for a review. The `PendingReview` struct also implements the `request_review` +method but doesn’t do any transformations. Rather, it returns itself [6] +because when we request a review on a post already in the `PendingReview` +state, it should stay in the `PendingReview` state. + +Now we can start seeing the advantages of the state pattern: the +`request_review` method on `Post` is the same no matter its `state` value. Each +state is responsible for its own rules. + +We’ll leave the `content` method on `Post` as is, returning an empty string +slice. We can now have a `Post` in the `PendingReview` state as well as in the +`Draft` state, but we want the same behavior in the `PendingReview` state. +Listing 17-11 now works up to the line at [5]! + +### Adding approve to Change the Behavior of content + +The `approve` method will be similar to the `request_review` method: it will +set `state` to the value that the current state says it should have when that +state is approved, as shown in Listing 17-16. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl Post { + --snip-- + pub fn approve(&mut self) { + if let Some(s) = self.state.take() { + self.state = Some(s.approve()) + } + } } -fn main() { - foo(3, 4); +trait State { + fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State>; + fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State>; } -``` - -Listing 18-17: Using `_` in a function signature -This code will completely ignore the value `3` passed as the first argument, -and will print `This code only uses the y parameter: 4`. +struct Draft {} -In most cases when you no longer need a particular function parameter, you -would change the signature so it doesn’t include the unused parameter. Ignoring -a function parameter can be especially useful in cases when, for example, -you’re implementing a trait when you need a certain type signature but the -function body in your implementation doesn’t need one of the parameters. You -then avoid getting a compiler warning about unused function parameters, as you -would if you used a name instead. - -#### Parts of a Value with a Nested _ +impl State for Draft { + --snip-- + fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { + 1 self + } +} -We can also use `_` inside another pattern to ignore just part of a value, for -example, when we want to test for only part of a value but have no use for the -other parts in the corresponding code we want to run. Listing 18-18 shows code -responsible for managing a setting’s value. The business requirements are that -the user should not be allowed to overwrite an existing customization of a -setting but can unset the setting and give it a value if it is currently unset. +struct PendingReview {} -Filename: src/main.rs +impl State for PendingReview { + --snip-- + fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { + 2 Box::new(Published {}) + } +} -``` -let mut setting_value = Some(5); -let new_setting_value = Some(10); +struct Published {} -match (setting_value, new_setting_value) { - (Some(_), Some(_)) => { - println!("Can't overwrite an existing customized value"); +impl State for Published { + fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { + self } - _ => { - setting_value = new_setting_value; + + fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { + self } } - -println!("setting is {:?}", setting_value); ``` -Listing 18-18: Using an underscore within patterns that match `Some` variants -when we don’t need to use the value inside the `Some` +Listing 17-16: Implementing the `approve` method on `Post` and the `State` trait -This code will print `Can't overwrite an existing customized value` and then -`setting is Some(5)`. In the first match arm, we don’t need to match on or use -the values inside either `Some` variant, but we do need to test for the case -when `setting_value` and `new_setting_value` are the `Some` variant. In that -case, we print the reason for not changing `setting_value`, and it doesn’t get -changed. +We add the `approve` method to the `State` trait and add a new struct that +implements `State`, the `Published` state. -In all other cases (if either `setting_value` or `new_setting_value` is `None`) -expressed by the `_` pattern in the second arm, we want to allow -`new_setting_value` to become `setting_value`. +Similar to the way `request_review` on `PendingReview` works, if we call the +`approve` method on a `Draft`, it will have no effect because `approve` will +return `self` [1]. When we call `approve` on `PendingReview`, it returns a new, +boxed instance of the `Published` struct [2]. The `Published` struct implements +the `State` trait, and for both the `request_review` method and the `approve` +method, it returns itself because the post should stay in the `Published` state +in those cases. -We can also use underscores in multiple places within one pattern to ignore -particular values. Listing 18-19 shows an example of ignoring the second and -fourth values in a tuple of five items. +Now we need to update the `content` method on `Post`. We want the value +returned from `content` to depend on the current state of the `Post`, so we’re +going to have the `Post` delegate to a `content` method defined on its `state`, +as shown in Listing 17-17. -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -let numbers = (2, 4, 8, 16, 32); - -match numbers { - (first, _, third, _, fifth) => { - println!("Some numbers: {first}, {third}, {fifth}"); +impl Post { + --snip-- + pub fn content(&self) -> &str { + self.state.as_ref().unwrap().content(self) } + --snip-- } ``` -Listing 18-19: Ignoring multiple parts of a tuple +Listing 17-17: Updating the `content` method on `Post` to delegate to a +`content` method on `State` -This code will print `Some numbers: 2, 8, 32`, and the values `4` and `16` will -be ignored. +Because the goal is to keep all of these rules inside the structs that +implement `State`, we call a `content` method on the value in `state` and pass +the post instance (that is, `self`) as an argument. Then we return the value +that’s returned from using the `content` method on the `state` value. -#### An Unused Variable by Starting Its Name with _ +We call the `as_ref` method on the `Option` because we want a reference to the +value inside the `Option` rather than ownership of the value. Because `state` +is an `Option<Box<dyn State>>`, when we call `as_ref`, an `Option<&Box<dyn +State>>` is returned. If we didn’t call `as_ref`, we would get an error because +we can’t move `state` out of the borrowed `&self` of the function parameter. -If you create a variable but don’t use it anywhere, Rust will usually issue a -warning because an unused variable could be a bug. However, sometimes it’s -useful to be able to create a variable you won’t use yet, such as when you’re -prototyping or just starting a project. In this situation, you can tell Rust -not to warn you about the unused variable by starting the name of the variable -with an underscore. In Listing 18-20, we create two unused variables, but when -we compile this code, we should only get a warning about one of them. +We then call the `unwrap` method, which we know will never panic because we +know the methods on `Post` ensure that `state` will always contain a `Some` +value when those methods are done. This is one of the cases we talked about in +“Cases in Which You Have More Information Than the Compiler” on page XX when we +know that a `None` value is never possible, even though the compiler isn’t able +to understand that. -Filename: src/main.rs +At this point, when we call `content` on the `&Box<dyn State>`, deref coercion +will take effect on the `&` and the `Box` so the `content` method will +ultimately be called on the type that implements the `State` trait. That means +we need to add `content` to the `State` trait definition, and that is where +we’ll put the logic for what content to return depending on which state we +have, as shown in Listing 17-18. + +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -fn main() { - let _x = 5; - let y = 10; +trait State { + --snip-- + fn content<'a>(&self, post: &'a Post) -> &'a str { + 1 "" + } } -``` - -Listing 18-20: Starting a variable name with an underscore to avoid getting -unused variable warnings -Here, we get a warning about not using the variable `y`, but we don’t get a -warning about not using `_x`. +--snip-- +struct Published {} -Note that there is a subtle difference between using only `_` and using a name -that starts with an underscore. The syntax `_x` still binds the value to the -variable, whereas `_` doesn’t bind at all. To show a case where this -distinction matters, Listing 18-21 will provide us with an error. - -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` -let s = Some(String::from("Hello!")); - -if let Some(_s) = s { - println!("found a string"); +impl State for Published { + --snip-- + fn content<'a>(&self, post: &'a Post) -> &'a str { + 2 &post.content + } } - -println!("{:?}", s); ``` -Listing 18-21: An unused variable starting with an underscore still binds the -value, which might take ownership of the value. - -We’ll receive an error because the `s` value will still be moved into `_s`, -which prevents us from using `s` again. However, using the underscore by itself -doesn’t ever bind to the value. Listing 18-22 will compile without any errors -because `s` doesn’t get moved into `_`. +Listing 17-18: Adding the `content` method to the `State` trait + +We add a default implementation for the `content` method that returns an empty +string slice [1]. That means we don’t need to implement `content` on the +`Draft` and `PendingReview` structs. The `Published` struct will override the +`content` method and return the value in `post.content` [2]. + +Note that we need lifetime annotations on this method, as we discussed in +Chapter 10. We’re taking a reference to a `post` as an argument and returning a +reference to part of that `post`, so the lifetime of the returned reference is +related to the lifetime of the `post` argument. + +And we’re done—all of Listing 17-11 now works! We’ve implemented the state +pattern with the rules of the blog post workflow. The logic related to the +rules lives in the state objects rather than being scattered throughout `Post`. + +> ### Why Not An Enum? +> +> You may have been wondering why we didn’t use an `enum` with the different +possible post states as variants. That’s certainly a possible solution; try it +and compare the end results to see which you prefer! One disadvantage of using +an enum is that every place that checks the value of the enum will need a +`match` expression or similar to handle every possible variant. This could get +more repetitive than this trait object solution. + +### Trade-offs of the State Pattern + +We’ve shown that Rust is capable of implementing the object-oriented state +pattern to encapsulate the different kinds of behavior a post should have in +each state. The methods on `Post` know nothing about the various behaviors. The +way we organized the code, we have to look in only one place to know the +different ways a published post can behave: the implementation of the `State` +trait on the `Published` struct. + +If we were to create an alternative implementation that didn’t use the state +pattern, we might instead use `match` expressions in the methods on `Post` or +even in the `main` code that checks the state of the post and changes behavior +in those places. That would mean we would have to look in several places to +understand all the implications of a post being in the published state! This +would only increase the more states we added: each of those `match` expressions +would need another arm. + +With the state pattern, the `Post` methods and the places we use `Post` don’t +need `match` expressions, and to add a new state, we would only need to add a +new struct and implement the trait methods on that one struct. + +The implementation using the state pattern is easy to extend to add more +functionality. To see the simplicity of maintaining code that uses the state +pattern, try a few of these suggestions: + +* Add a `reject` method that changes the post’s state from `PendingReview` back +to `Draft`. +* Require two calls to `approve` before the state can be changed to `Published`. +* Allow users to add text content only when a post is in the `Draft` state. +Hint: have the state object responsible for what might change about the content +but not responsible for modifying the `Post`. + +One downside of the state pattern is that, because the states implement the +transitions between states, some of the states are coupled to each other. If we +add another state between `PendingReview` and `Published`, such as `Scheduled`, +we would have to change the code in `PendingReview` to transition to +`Scheduled` instead. It would be less work if `PendingReview` didn’t need to +change with the addition of a new state, but that would mean switching to +another design pattern. + +Another downside is that we’ve duplicated some logic. To eliminate some of the +duplication, we might try to make default implementations for the +`request_review` and `approve` methods on the `State` trait that return `self`. +However, this wouldn’t work: when using `State` as a trait object, the trait +doesn’t know what the concrete `self` will be exactly, so the return type isn’t +known at compile time. + +Other duplication includes the similar implementations of the `request_review` +and `approve` methods on `Post`. Both methods delegate to the implementation of +the same method on the value in the `state` field of `Option` and set the new +value of the `state` field to the result. If we had a lot of methods on `Post` +that followed this pattern, we might consider defining a macro to eliminate the +repetition (see “Macros” on page XX). + +By implementing the state pattern exactly as it’s defined for object-oriented +languages, we’re not taking as full advantage of Rust’s strengths as we could. +Let’s look at some changes we can make to the `blog` crate that can make +invalid states and transitions into compile-time errors. + +#### Encoding States and Behavior as Types + +We’ll show you how to rethink the state pattern to get a different set of +trade-offs. Rather than encapsulating the states and transitions completely so +outside code has no knowledge of them, we’ll encode the states into different +types. Consequently, Rust’s type checking system will prevent attempts to use +draft posts where only published posts are allowed by issuing a compiler error. + +Let’s consider the first part of `main` in Listing 17-11: Filename: src/main.rs ``` -let s = Some(String::from("Hello!")); +fn main() { + let mut post = Post::new(); -if let Some(_) = s { - println!("found a string"); + post.add_text("I ate a salad for lunch today"); + assert_eq!("", post.content()); } - -println!("{:?}", s); ``` -Listing 18-22: Using an underscore does not bind the value. - -This code works just fine because we never bind `s` to anything; it isn’t moved. - -#### Remaining Parts of a Value with .. +We still enable the creation of new posts in the draft state using `Post::new` +and the ability to add text to the post’s content. But instead of having a +`content` method on a draft post that returns an empty string, we’ll make it so +draft posts don’t have the `content` method at all. That way, if we try to get +a draft post’s content, we’ll get a compiler error telling us the method +doesn’t exist. As a result, it will be impossible for us to accidentally +display draft post content in production because that code won’t even compile. +Listing 17-19 shows the definition of a `Post` struct and a `DraftPost` struct, +as well as methods on each. -With values that have many parts, we can use the `..` syntax to use specific -parts and ignore the rest, avoiding the need to list underscores for each -ignored value. The `..` pattern ignores any parts of a value that we haven’t -explicitly matched in the rest of the pattern. In Listing 18-23, we have a -`Point` struct that holds a coordinate in three-dimensional space. In the -`match` expression, we want to operate only on the `x` coordinate and ignore -the values in the `y` and `z` fields. - -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -struct Point { - x: i32, - y: i32, - z: i32, +pub struct Post { + content: String, } -let origin = Point { x: 0, y: 0, z: 0 }; - -match origin { - Point { x, .. } => println!("x is {x}"), +pub struct DraftPost { + content: String, } -``` - -Listing 18-23: Ignoring all fields of a `Point` except for `x` by using `..` - -We list the `x` value and then just include the `..` pattern. This is quicker -than having to list `y: _` and `z: _`, particularly when we’re working with -structs that have lots of fields in situations where only one or two fields are -relevant. - -The syntax `..` will expand to as many values as it needs to be. Listing 18-24 -shows how to use `..` with a tuple. - -Filename: src/main.rs -``` -fn main() { - let numbers = (2, 4, 8, 16, 32); - - match numbers { - (first, .., last) => { - println!("Some numbers: {first}, {last}"); +impl Post { + 1 pub fn new() -> DraftPost { + DraftPost { + content: String::new(), } } -} -``` - -Listing 18-24: Matching only the first and last values in a tuple and ignoring -all other values - -In this code, the first and last values are matched with `first` and `last`. -The `..` will match and ignore everything in the middle. - -However, using `..` must be unambiguous. If it is unclear which values are -intended for matching and which should be ignored, Rust will give us an error. -Listing 18-25 shows an example of using `..` ambiguously, so it will not -compile. -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` -fn main() { - let numbers = (2, 4, 8, 16, 32); + 2 pub fn content(&self) -> &str { + &self.content + } +} - match numbers { - (.., second, ..) => { - println!("Some numbers: {second}"); - }, +impl DraftPost { + 3 pub fn add_text(&mut self, text: &str) { + self.content.push_str(text); } } ``` -Listing 18-25: An attempt to use `..` in an ambiguous way +Listing 17-19: A `Post` with a `content` method and a `DraftPost` without a +`content` method -When we compile this example, we get this error: +Both the `Post` and `DraftPost` structs have a private `content` field that +stores the blog post text. The structs no longer have the `state` field because +we’re moving the encoding of the state to the types of the structs. The `Post` +struct will represent a published post, and it has a `content` method that +returns the `content` [2]. -``` -error: `..` can only be used once per tuple pattern - --> src/main.rs:5:22 - | -5 | (.., second, ..) => { - | -- ^^ can only be used once per tuple pattern - | | - | previously used here -``` +We still have a `Post::new` function, but instead of returning an instance of +`Post`, it returns an instance of `DraftPost` [1]. Because `content` is private +and there aren’t any functions that return `Post`, it’s not possible to create +an instance of `Post` right now. -It’s impossible for Rust to determine how many values in the tuple to ignore -before matching a value with `second` and then how many further values to -ignore thereafter. This code could mean that we want to ignore `2`, bind -`second` to `4`, and then ignore `8`, `16`, and `32`; or that we want to ignore -`2` and `4`, bind `second` to `8`, and then ignore `16` and `32`; and so forth. -The variable name `second` doesn’t mean anything special to Rust, so we get a -compiler error because using `..` in two places like this is ambiguous. +The `DraftPost` struct has an `add_text` method, so we can add text to +`content` as before [3], but note that `DraftPost` does not have a `content` +method defined! So now the program ensures all posts start as draft posts, and +draft posts don’t have their content available for display. Any attempt to get +around these constraints will result in a compiler error. -### Extra Conditionals with Match Guards +#### Implementing Transitions as Transformations into Different Types -A *match guard* is an additional `if` condition, specified after the pattern in -a `match` arm, that must also match for that arm to be chosen. Match guards are -useful for expressing more complex ideas than a pattern alone allows. +So how do we get a published post? We want to enforce the rule that a draft +post has to be reviewed and approved before it can be published. A post in the +pending review state should still not display any content. Let’s implement +these constraints by adding another struct, `PendingReviewPost`, defining the +`request_review` method on `DraftPost` to return a `PendingReviewPost` and +defining an `approve` method on `PendingReviewPost` to return a `Post`, as +shown in Listing 17-20. -The condition can use variables created in the pattern. Listing 18-26 shows a -`match` where the first arm has the pattern `Some(x)` and also has a match -guard of `if x % 2 == 0` (which will be `true` if the number is even). - -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -let num = Some(4); - -match num { - Some(x) if x % 2 == 0 => println!("The number {x} is even"), - Some(x) => println!("The number {x} is odd"), - None => (), +impl DraftPost { + --snip-- + pub fn request_review(self) -> PendingReviewPost { + PendingReviewPost { + content: self.content, + } + } } -``` - -Listing 18-26: Adding a match guard to a pattern - -This example will print `The number 4 is even`. When `num` is compared to the -pattern in the first arm, it matches because `Some(4)` matches `Some(x)`. Then -the match guard checks whether the remainder of dividing `x` by 2 is equal to -0, and because it is, the first arm is selected. -If `num` had been `Some(5)` instead, the match guard in the first arm would -have been `false` because the remainder of 5 divided by 2 is 1, which is not -equal to 0. Rust would then go to the second arm, which would match because the -second arm doesn’t have a match guard and therefore matches any `Some` variant. - -There is no way to express the `if x % 2 == 0` condition within a pattern, so -the match guard gives us the ability to express this logic. The downside of -this additional expressiveness is that the compiler doesn’t try to check for -exhaustiveness when match guard expressions are involved. - -In Listing 18-11, we mentioned that we could use match guards to solve our -pattern-shadowing problem. Recall that we created a new variable inside the -pattern in the `match` expression instead of using the variable outside the -`match`. That new variable meant we couldn’t test against the value of the -outer variable. Listing 18-27 shows how we can use a match guard to fix this -problem. - -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` -fn main() { - let x = Some(5); - let y = 10; +pub struct PendingReviewPost { + content: String, +} - match x { - Some(50) => println!("Got 50"), - Some(n) if n == y => println!("Matched, n = {n}"), - _ => println!("Default case, x = {:?}", x), +impl PendingReviewPost { + pub fn approve(self) -> Post { + Post { + content: self.content, + } } - - println!("at the end: x = {:?}, y = {y}", x); } ``` -Listing 18-27: Using a match guard to test for equality with an outer variable - -This code will now print `Default case, x = Some(5)`. The pattern in the second -match arm doesn’t introduce a new variable `y` that would shadow the outer `y`, -meaning we can use the outer `y` in the match guard. Instead of specifying the -pattern as `Some(y)`, which would have shadowed the outer `y`, we specify -`Some(n)`. This creates a new variable `n` that doesn’t shadow anything because -there is no `n` variable outside the `match`. - -The match guard `if n == y` is not a pattern and therefore doesn’t introduce -new variables. This `y` *is* the outer `y` rather than a new shadowed `y`, and -we can look for a value that has the same value as the outer `y` by comparing -`n` to `y`. - -You can also use the *or* operator `|` in a match guard to specify multiple -patterns; the match guard condition will apply to all the patterns. Listing -18-28 shows the precedence when combining a pattern that uses `|` with a match -guard. The important part of this example is that the `if y` match guard -applies to `4`, `5`, *and* `6`, even though it might look like `if y` only -applies to `6`. +Listing 17-20: A `PendingReviewPost` that gets created by calling +`request_review` on `DraftPost` and an `approve` method that turns a +`PendingReviewPost` into a published `Post` + +The `request_review` and `approve` methods take ownership of `self`, thus +consuming the `DraftPost` and `PendingReviewPost` instances and transforming +them into a `PendingReviewPost` and a published `Post`, respectively. This way, +we won’t have any lingering `DraftPost` instances after we’ve called +`request_review` on them, and so forth. The `PendingReviewPost` struct doesn’t +have a `content` method defined on it, so attempting to read its content +results in a compiler error, as with `DraftPost`. Because the only way to get a +published `Post` instance that does have a `content` method defined is to call +the `approve` method on a `PendingReviewPost`, and the only way to get a +`PendingReviewPost` is to call the `request_review` method on a `DraftPost`, +we’ve now encoded the blog post workflow into the type system. + +But we also have to make some small changes to `main`. The `request_review` and +`approve` methods return new instances rather than modifying the struct they’re +called on, so we need to add more `let post =` shadowing assignments to save +the returned instances. We also can’t have the assertions about the draft and +pending review posts’ contents be empty strings, nor do we need them: we can’t +compile code that tries to use the content of posts in those states any longer. +The updated code in `main` is shown in Listing 17-21. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -let x = 4; -let y = false; - -match x { - 4 | 5 | 6 if y => println!("yes"), - _ => println!("no"), -} -``` - -Listing 18-28: Combining multiple patterns with a match guard - -The match condition states that the arm only matches if the value of `x` is -equal to `4`, `5`, or `6` *and* if `y` is `true`. When this code runs, the -pattern of the first arm matches because `x` is `4`, but the match guard `if y` -is `false`, so the first arm is not chosen. The code moves on to the second -arm, which does match, and this program prints `no`. The reason is that the -`if` condition applies to the whole pattern `4 | 5 | 6`, not just to the last -value `6`. In other words, the precedence of a match guard in relation to a -pattern behaves like this: - -``` -(4 | 5 | 6) if y => ... -``` - -rather than this: - -``` -4 | 5 | (6 if y) => ... -``` - -After running the code, the precedence behavior is evident: if the match guard -were applied only to the final value in the list of values specified using the -`|` operator, the arm would have matched and the program would have printed -`yes`. +use blog::Post; -### @ Bindings - -The *at* operator `@` lets us create a variable that holds a value at the same -time we’re testing that value for a pattern match. In Listing 18-29, we want to -test that a `Message::Hello` `id` field is within the range `3..=7`. We also -want to bind the value to the variable `id_variable` so we can use it in the -code associated with the arm. We could name this variable `id`, the same as the -field, but for this example we’ll use a different name. +fn main() { + let mut post = Post::new(); -Filename: src/main.rs + post.add_text("I ate a salad for lunch today"); -``` -enum Message { - Hello { id: i32 }, -} + let post = post.request_review(); -let msg = Message::Hello { id: 5 }; + let post = post.approve(); -match msg { - Message::Hello { - id: id_variable @ 3..=7, - } => println!("Found an id in range: {id_variable}"), - Message::Hello { id: 10..=12 } => { - println!("Found an id in another range") - } - Message::Hello { id } => println!("Some other id: {id}"), + assert_eq!("I ate a salad for lunch today", post.content()); } ``` -Listing 18-29: Using `@` to bind to a value in a pattern while also testing it +Listing 17-21: Modifications to `main` to use the new implementation of the +blog post workflow -This example will print `Found an id in range: 5`. By specifying `id_variable -@` before the range `3..=7`, we’re capturing whatever value matched the range -while also testing that the value matched the range pattern. +The changes we needed to make to `main` to reassign `post` mean that this +implementation doesn’t quite follow the object-oriented state pattern anymore: +the transformations between the states are no longer encapsulated entirely +within the `Post` implementation. However, our gain is that invalid states are +now impossible because of the type system and the type checking that happens at +compile time! This ensures that certain bugs, such as display of the content of +an unpublished post, will be discovered before they make it to production. -In the second arm, where we only have a range specified in the pattern, the -code associated with the arm doesn’t have a variable that contains the actual -value of the `id` field. The `id` field’s value could have been 10, 11, or 12, -but the code that goes with that pattern doesn’t know which it is. The pattern -code isn’t able to use the value from the `id` field because we haven’t saved -the `id` value in a variable. +Try the tasks suggested at the start of this section on the `blog` crate as it +is after Listing 17-21 to see what you think about the design of this version +of the code. Note that some of the tasks might be completed already in this +design. -In the last arm, where we’ve specified a variable without a range, we do have -the value available to use in the arm’s code in a variable named `id`. The -reason is that we’ve used the struct field shorthand syntax. But we haven’t -applied any test to the value in the `id` field in this arm, as we did with the -first two arms: any value would match this pattern. - -Using `@` lets us test a value and save it in a variable within one pattern. +We’ve seen that even though Rust is capable of implementing object-oriented +design patterns, other patterns, such as encoding state into the type system, +are also available in Rust. These patterns have different trade-offs. Although +you might be very familiar with object-oriented patterns, rethinking the +problem to take advantage of Rust’s features can provide benefits, such as +preventing some bugs at compile time. Object-oriented patterns won’t always be +the best solution in Rust due to certain features, like ownership, that +object-oriented languages don’t have. ## Summary -Rust’s patterns are very useful in distinguishing between different kinds of -data. When used in `match` expressions, Rust ensures your patterns cover every -possible value, or your program won’t compile. Patterns in `let` statements and -function parameters make those constructs more useful, enabling the -destructuring of values into smaller parts at the same time as assigning to -variables. We can create simple or complex patterns to suit our needs. - -Next, for the penultimate chapter of the book, we’ll look at some advanced -aspects of a variety of Rust’s features. +Regardless of whether you think Rust is an object-oriented language after +reading this chapter, you now know that you can use trait objects to get some +object-oriented features in Rust. Dynamic dispatch can give your code some +flexibility in exchange for a bit of runtime performance. You can use this +flexibility to implement object-oriented patterns that can help your code’s +maintainability. Rust also has other features, like ownership, that +object-oriented languages don’t have. An object-oriented pattern won’t always +be the best way to take advantage of Rust’s strengths, but it is an available +option. + +Next, we’ll look at patterns, which are another of Rust’s features that enable +lots of flexibility. We’ve looked at them briefly throughout the book but +haven’t seen their full capability yet. Let’s go! diff --git a/nostarch/chapter19.md b/nostarch/chapter19.md index 410e7eb62..40c7f10a1 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter19.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter19.md @@ -6,2291 +6,1287 @@ directory, so all fixes need to be made in `/src/`. [TOC] -# Advanced Features - -By now, you’ve learned the most commonly used parts of the Rust programming -language. Before we do one more project, in Chapter 20, we’ll look at a few -aspects of the language you might run into every once in a while, but may not -use every day. You can use this chapter as a reference for when you encounter -any unknowns. The features covered here are useful in very specific situations. -Although you might not reach for them often, we want to make sure you have a -grasp of all the features Rust has to offer. - -In this chapter, we’ll cover: - -* Unsafe Rust: how to opt out of some of Rust’s guarantees and take -responsibility for manually upholding those guarantees -* Advanced traits: associated types, default type parameters, fully qualified -syntax, supertraits, and the newtype pattern in relation to traits -* Advanced types: more about the newtype pattern, type aliases, the never type, -and dynamically sized types -* Advanced functions and closures: function pointers and returning closures -* Macros: ways to define code that defines more code at compile time - -It’s a panoply of Rust features with something for everyone! Let’s dive in! - -## Unsafe Rust - -All the code we’ve discussed so far has had Rust’s memory safety guarantees -enforced at compile time. However, Rust has a second language hidden inside it -that doesn’t enforce these memory safety guarantees: it’s called *unsafe Rust* -and works just like regular Rust, but gives us extra superpowers. - -Unsafe Rust exists because, by nature, static analysis is conservative. When -the compiler tries to determine whether or not code upholds the guarantees, -it’s better for it to reject some valid programs than to accept some invalid -programs. Although the code *might* be okay, if the Rust compiler doesn’t have -enough information to be confident, it will reject the code. In these cases, -you can use unsafe code to tell the compiler, “Trust me, I know what I’m -doing.” Be warned, however, that you use unsafe Rust at your own risk: if you -use unsafe code incorrectly, problems can occur due to memory unsafety, such as -null pointer dereferencing. - -Another reason Rust has an unsafe alter ego is that the underlying computer -hardware is inherently unsafe. If Rust didn’t let you do unsafe operations, you -couldn’t do certain tasks. Rust needs to allow you to do low-level systems -programming, such as directly interacting with the operating system or even -writing your own operating system. Working with low-level systems programming -is one of the goals of the language. Let’s explore what we can do with unsafe -Rust and how to do it. - -### Unsafe Superpowers - -To switch to unsafe Rust, use the `unsafe` keyword and then start a new block -that holds the unsafe code. You can take five actions in unsafe Rust that you -can’t in safe Rust, which we call *unsafe superpowers*. Those superpowers -include the ability to: - -1. Dereference a raw pointer -1. Call an unsafe function or method -1. Access or modify a mutable static variable -1. Implement an unsafe trait -1. Access fields of `union`s - -It’s important to understand that `unsafe` doesn’t turn off the borrow checker -or disable any of Rust’s other safety checks: if you use a reference in unsafe -code, it will still be checked. The `unsafe` keyword only gives you access to -these five features that are then not checked by the compiler for memory -safety. You’ll still get some degree of safety inside an unsafe block. - -In addition, `unsafe` does not mean the code inside the block is necessarily -dangerous or that it will definitely have memory safety problems: the intent is -that as the programmer, you’ll ensure the code inside an `unsafe` block will -access memory in a valid way. - -People are fallible and mistakes will happen, but by requiring these five -unsafe operations to be inside blocks annotated with `unsafe`, you’ll know that -any errors related to memory safety must be within an `unsafe` block. Keep -`unsafe` blocks small; you’ll be thankful later when you investigate memory -bugs. - -To isolate unsafe code as much as possible, it’s best to enclose such code -within a safe abstraction and provide a safe API, which we’ll discuss later in -the chapter when we examine unsafe functions and methods. Parts of the standard -library are implemented as safe abstractions over unsafe code that has been -audited. Wrapping unsafe code in a safe abstraction prevents uses of `unsafe` -from leaking out into all the places that you or your users might want to use -the functionality implemented with `unsafe` code, because using a safe -abstraction is safe. - -Let’s look at each of the five unsafe superpowers in turn. We’ll also look at -some abstractions that provide a safe interface to unsafe code. - -### Dereferencing a Raw Pointer - -In “Dangling References” on page XX, we mentioned that the compiler ensures -references are always valid. Unsafe Rust has two new types called *raw -pointers* that are similar to references. As with references, raw pointers can -be immutable or mutable and are written as `*const T` and `*mut T`, -respectively. The asterisk isn’t the dereference operator; it’s part of the -type name. In the context of raw pointers, *immutable* means that the pointer -can’t be directly assigned to after being dereferenced. - -Different from references and smart pointers, raw pointers: - -* Are allowed to ignore the borrowing rules by having both immutable and -mutable pointers or multiple mutable pointers to the same location -* Aren’t guaranteed to point to valid memory -* Are allowed to be null -* Don’t implement any automatic cleanup +# Patterns and Matching -By opting out of having Rust enforce these guarantees, you can give up -guaranteed safety in exchange for greater performance or the ability to -interface with another language or hardware where Rust’s guarantees don’t apply. +*Patterns* are a special syntax in Rust for matching against the structure of +types, both complex and simple. Using patterns in conjunction with `match` +expressions and other constructs gives you more control over a program’s +control flow. A pattern consists of some combination of the following: -Listing 19-1 shows how to create an immutable and a mutable raw pointer from -references. - -``` -let mut num = 5; - -let r1 = &num as *const i32; -let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32; -``` +* Literals +* Destructured arrays, enums, structs, or tuples +* Variables +* Wildcards +* Placeholders -Listing 19-1: Creating raw pointers from references +Some example patterns include `x`, `(a, 3)`, and `Some(Color::Red)`. In the +contexts in which patterns are valid, these components describe the shape of +data. Our program then matches values against the patterns to determine whether +it has the correct shape of data to continue running a particular piece of code. -Notice that we don’t include the `unsafe` keyword in this code. We can create -raw pointers in safe code; we just can’t dereference raw pointers outside an -unsafe block, as you’ll see in a bit. +To use a pattern, we compare it to some value. If the pattern matches the +value, we use the value parts in our code. Recall the `match` expressions in +Chapter 6 that used patterns, such as the coin-sorting machine example. If the +value fits the shape of the pattern, we can use the named pieces. If it +doesn’t, the code associated with the pattern won’t run. -We’ve created raw pointers by using `as` to cast an immutable and a mutable -reference into their corresponding raw pointer types. Because we created them -directly from references guaranteed to be valid, we know these particular raw -pointers are valid, but we can’t make that assumption about just any raw -pointer. +This chapter is a reference on all things related to patterns. We’ll cover the +valid places to use patterns, the difference between refutable and irrefutable +patterns, and the different kinds of pattern syntax that you might see. By the +end of the chapter, you’ll know how to use patterns to express many concepts in +a clear way. -To demonstrate this, next we’ll create a raw pointer whose validity we can’t be -so certain of. Listing 19-2 shows how to create a raw pointer to an arbitrary -location in memory. Trying to use arbitrary memory is undefined: there might be -data at that address or there might not, the compiler might optimize the code -so there is no memory access, or the program might terminate with a -segmentation fault. Usually, there is no good reason to write code like this, -but it is possible. +## All the Places Patterns Can Be Used -``` -let address = 0x012345usize; -let r = address as *const i32; -``` +Patterns pop up in a number of places in Rust, and you’ve been using them a lot +without realizing it! This section discusses all the places where patterns are +valid. -Listing 19-2: Creating a raw pointer to an arbitrary memory address +### match Arms -Recall that we can create raw pointers in safe code, but we can’t *dereference* -raw pointers and read the data being pointed to. In Listing 19-3, we use the -dereference operator `*` on a raw pointer that requires an `unsafe` block. +As discussed in Chapter 6, we use patterns in the arms of `match` expressions. +Formally, `match` expressions are defined as the keyword `match`, a value to +match on, and one or more match arms that consist of a pattern and an +expression to run if the value matches that arm’s pattern, like this: ``` -let mut num = 5; - -let r1 = &num as *const i32; -let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32; - -unsafe { - println!("r1 is: {}", *r1); - println!("r2 is: {}", *r2); +match VALUE { + PATTERN => EXPRESSION, + PATTERN => EXPRESSION, + PATTERN => EXPRESSION, } ``` -Listing 19-3: Dereferencing raw pointers within an `unsafe` block - -Creating a pointer does no harm; it’s only when we try to access the value that -it points at that we might end up dealing with an invalid value. - -Note also that in Listings 19-1 and 19-3, we created `*const i32` and `*mut -i32` raw pointers that both pointed to the same memory location, where `num` is -stored. If we instead tried to create an immutable and a mutable reference to -`num`, the code would not have compiled because Rust’s ownership rules don’t -allow a mutable reference at the same time as any immutable references. With -raw pointers, we can create a mutable pointer and an immutable pointer to the -same location and change data through the mutable pointer, potentially creating -a data race. Be careful! - -With all of these dangers, why would you ever use raw pointers? One major use -case is when interfacing with C code, as you’ll see in “Calling an Unsafe -Function or Method” on page XX. Another case is when building up safe -abstractions that the borrow checker doesn’t understand. We’ll introduce unsafe -functions and then look at an example of a safe abstraction that uses unsafe -code. - -### Calling an Unsafe Function or Method - -The second type of operation you can perform in an unsafe block is calling -unsafe functions. Unsafe functions and methods look exactly like regular -functions and methods, but they have an extra `unsafe` before the rest of the -definition. The `unsafe` keyword in this context indicates the function has -requirements we need to uphold when we call this function, because Rust can’t -guarantee we’ve met these requirements. By calling an unsafe function within an -`unsafe` block, we’re saying that we’ve read this function’s documentation and -we take responsibility for upholding the function’s contracts. - -Here is an unsafe function named `dangerous` that doesn’t do anything in its -body: - -``` -unsafe fn dangerous() {} - -unsafe { - dangerous(); -} -``` - -We must call the `dangerous` function within a separate `unsafe` block. If we -try to call `dangerous` without the `unsafe` block, we’ll get an error: - -``` -error[E0133]: call to unsafe function is unsafe and requires -unsafe function or block - --> src/main.rs:4:5 - | -4 | dangerous(); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^ call to unsafe function - | - = note: consult the function's documentation for information on -how to avoid undefined behavior -``` - -With the `unsafe` block, we’re asserting to Rust that we’ve read the function’s -documentation, we understand how to use it properly, and we’ve verified that -we’re fulfilling the contract of the function. - -Bodies of unsafe functions are effectively `unsafe` blocks, so to perform other -unsafe operations within an unsafe function, we don’t need to add another -`unsafe` block. - -#### Creating a Safe Abstraction over Unsafe Code - -Just because a function contains unsafe code doesn’t mean we need to mark the -entire function as unsafe. In fact, wrapping unsafe code in a safe function is -a common abstraction. As an example, let’s study the `split_at_mut` function -from the standard library, which requires some unsafe code. We’ll explore how -we might implement it. This safe method is defined on mutable slices: it takes -one slice and makes it two by splitting the slice at the index given as an -argument. Listing 19-4 shows how to use `split_at_mut`. - -``` -let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]; - -let r = &mut v[..]; - -let (a, b) = r.split_at_mut(3); +For example, here’s the `match` expression from Listing 6-5 that matches on an +`Option<i32>` value in the variable `x`: -assert_eq!(a, &mut [1, 2, 3]); -assert_eq!(b, &mut [4, 5, 6]); ``` - -Listing 19-4: Using the safe `split_at_mut` function - -We can’t implement this function using only safe Rust. An attempt might look -something like Listing 19-5, which won’t compile. For simplicity, we’ll -implement `split_at_mut` as a function rather than a method and only for slices -of `i32` values rather than for a generic type `T`. - -``` -fn split_at_mut( - values: &mut [i32], - mid: usize, -) -> (&mut [i32], &mut [i32]) { - let len = values.len(); - - assert!(mid <= len); - - (&mut values[..mid], &mut values[mid..]) +match x { + None => None, + Some(i) => Some(i + 1), } ``` -Listing 19-5: An attempted implementation of `split_at_mut` using only safe Rust - -This function first gets the total length of the slice. Then it asserts that -the index given as a parameter is within the slice by checking whether it’s -less than or equal to the length. The assertion means that if we pass an index -that is greater than the length to split the slice at, the function will panic -before it attempts to use that index. - -Then we return two mutable slices in a tuple: one from the start of the -original slice to the `mid` index and another from `mid` to the end of the -slice. - -When we try to compile the code in Listing 19-5, we’ll get an error: - -``` -error[E0499]: cannot borrow `*values` as mutable more than once at a time - --> src/main.rs:9:31 - | -2 | values: &mut [i32], - | - let's call the lifetime of this reference `'1` -... -9 | (&mut values[..mid], &mut values[mid..]) - | --------------------------^^^^^^-------- - | | | | - | | | second mutable borrow occurs here - | | first mutable borrow occurs here - | returning this value requires that `*values` is borrowed for `'1` -``` - -Rust’s borrow checker can’t understand that we’re borrowing different parts of -the slice; it only knows that we’re borrowing from the same slice twice. -Borrowing different parts of a slice is fundamentally okay because the two -slices aren’t overlapping, but Rust isn’t smart enough to know this. When we -know code is okay, but Rust doesn’t, it’s time to reach for unsafe code. - -Listing 19-6 shows how to use an `unsafe` block, a raw pointer, and some calls -to unsafe functions to make the implementation of `split_at_mut` work. - -``` -use std::slice; - -fn split_at_mut( - values: &mut [i32], - mid: usize, -) -> (&mut [i32], &mut [i32]) { - 1 let len = values.len(); - 2 let ptr = values.as_mut_ptr(); - - 3 assert!(mid <= len); - - 4 unsafe { - ( - 5 slice::from_raw_parts_mut(ptr, mid), - 6 slice::from_raw_parts_mut(ptr.add(mid), len - mid), - ) - } -} -``` +The patterns in this `match` expression are the `None` and `Some(i)` to the +left of each arrow. -Listing 19-6: Using unsafe code in the implementation of the `split_at_mut` -function - -Recall from “The Slice Type” on page XX that a slice is a pointer to some data -and the length of the slice. We use the `len` method to get the length of a -slice [1] and the `as_mut_ptr` method to access the raw pointer of a slice [2]. -In this case, because we have a mutable slice to `i32` values, `as_mut_ptr` -returns a raw pointer with the type `*mut i32`, which we’ve stored in the -variable `ptr`. - -We keep the assertion that the `mid` index is within the slice [3]. Then we get -to the unsafe code [4]: the `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` function takes a raw -pointer and a length, and it creates a slice. We use it to create a slice that -starts from `ptr` and is `mid` items long [5]. Then we call the `add` method on -`ptr` with `mid` as an argument to get a raw pointer that starts at `mid`, and -we create a slice using that pointer and the remaining number of items after -`mid` as the length [6]. - -The function `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` is unsafe because it takes a raw -pointer and must trust that this pointer is valid. The `add` method on raw -pointers is also unsafe because it must trust that the offset location is also -a valid pointer. Therefore, we had to put an `unsafe` block around our calls to -`slice::from_raw_parts_mut` and `add` so we could call them. By looking at the -code and by adding the assertion that `mid` must be less than or equal to -`len`, we can tell that all the raw pointers used within the `unsafe` block -will be valid pointers to data within the slice. This is an acceptable and -appropriate use of `unsafe`. - -Note that we don’t need to mark the resultant `split_at_mut` function as -`unsafe`, and we can call this function from safe Rust. We’ve created a safe -abstraction to the unsafe code with an implementation of the function that uses -`unsafe` code in a safe way, because it creates only valid pointers from the -data this function has access to. - -In contrast, the use of `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` in Listing 19-7 would -likely crash when the slice is used. This code takes an arbitrary memory -location and creates a slice 10,000 items long. - -``` -use std::slice; - -let address = 0x01234usize; -let r = address as *mut i32; - -let values: &[i32] = unsafe { - slice::from_raw_parts_mut(r, 10000) -}; -``` +One requirement for `match` expressions is that they need to be *exhaustive* in +the sense that all possibilities for the value in the `match` expression must +be accounted for. One way to ensure you’ve covered every possibility is to have +a catchall pattern for the last arm: for example, a variable name matching any +value can never fail and thus covers every remaining case. -Listing 19-7: Creating a slice from an arbitrary memory location +The particular pattern `_` will match anything, but it never binds to a +variable, so it’s often used in the last match arm. The `_` pattern can be +useful when you want to ignore any value not specified, for example. We’ll +cover the `_` pattern in more detail in “Ignoring Values in a Pattern” on page +XX. -We don’t own the memory at this arbitrary location, and there is no guarantee -that the slice this code creates contains valid `i32` values. Attempting to use -`values` as though it’s a valid slice results in undefined behavior. +### Conditional if let Expressions -#### Using extern Functions to Call External Code +In Chapter 6, we discussed how to use `if let` expressions mainly as a shorter +way to write the equivalent of a `match` that only matches one case. +Optionally, `if let` can have a corresponding `else` containing code to run if +the pattern in the `if let` doesn’t match. -Sometimes your Rust code might need to interact with code written in another -language. For this, Rust has the keyword `extern` that facilitates the creation -and use of a *Foreign Function Interface* *(FFI)*, which is a way for a -programming language to define functions and enable a different (foreign) -programming language to call those functions. +Listing 18-1 shows that it’s also possible to mix and match `if let`, `else +if`, and `else if let` expressions. Doing so gives us more flexibility than a +`match` expression in which we can express only one value to compare with the +patterns. Also, Rust doesn’t require that the conditions in a series of `if +let`, `else if`, and `else if let` arms relate to each other. -Listing 19-8 demonstrates how to set up an integration with the `abs` function -from the C standard library. Functions declared within `extern` blocks are -always unsafe to call from Rust code. The reason is that other languages don’t -enforce Rust’s rules and guarantees, and Rust can’t check them, so -responsibility falls on the programmer to ensure safety. +The code in Listing 18-1 determines what color to make your background based on +a series of checks for several conditions. For this example, we’ve created +variables with hardcoded values that a real program might receive from user +input. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -extern "C" { - fn abs(input: i32) -> i32; -} - fn main() { - unsafe { - println!( - "Absolute value of -3 according to C: {}", - abs(-3) + let favorite_color: Option<&str> = None; + let is_tuesday = false; + let age: Result<u8, _> = "34".parse(); + + 1 if let Some(color) = favorite_color { + 2 println!( + "Using your favorite, {color}, as the background" ); + 3 } else if is_tuesday { + 4 println!("Tuesday is green day!"); + 5 } else if let Ok(age) = age { + 6 if age > 30 { + 7 println!("Using purple as the background color"); + } else { + 8 println!("Using orange as the background color"); + } + 9 } else { + 10 println!("Using blue as the background color"); } } ``` -Listing 19-8: Declaring and calling an `extern` function defined in another -language - -Within the `extern "C"` block, we list the names and signatures of external -functions from another language we want to call. The `"C"` part defines which -*application binary interface* *(ABI)* the external function uses: the ABI -defines how to call the function at the assembly level. The `"C"` ABI is the -most common and follows the C programming language’s ABI. - -> ### Calling Rust Functions from Other Languages -> -> We can also use `extern` to create an interface that allows other languages -to call Rust functions. Instead of creating a whole `extern` block, we add the -`extern` keyword and specify the ABI to use just before the `fn` keyword for -the relevant function. We also need to add a `#[no_mangle]` annotation to tell -the Rust compiler not to mangle the name of this function. *Mangling* is when a -compiler changes the name we’ve given a function to a different name that -contains more information for other parts of the compilation process to consume -but is less human readable. Every programming language compiler mangles names -slightly differently, so for a Rust function to be nameable by other languages, -we must disable the Rust compiler’s name mangling. -> -> In the following example, we make the `call_from_c` function accessible from -C code, after it’s compiled to a shared library and linked from C: -> -> ``` -> #[no_mangle] -> pub extern "C" fn call_from_c() { -> println!("Just called a Rust function from C!"); -> } -> ``` -> -> This usage of `extern` does not require `unsafe`. - -### Accessing or Modifying a Mutable Static Variable - -In this book, we’ve not yet talked about global variables, which Rust does -support but can be problematic with Rust’s ownership rules. If two threads are -accessing the same mutable global variable, it can cause a data race. - -In Rust, global variables are called *static* variables. Listing 19-9 shows an -example declaration and use of a static variable with a string slice as a value. +Listing 18-1: Mixing `if let`, `else if`, `else if let`, and `else` -Filename: src/main.rs +If the user specifies a favorite color [1], that color is used as the +background [2]. If no favorite color is specified and today is Tuesday [3], the +background color is green [4]. Otherwise, if the user specifies their age as a +string and we can parse it as a number successfully [5], the color is either +purple [7] or orange [8] depending on the value of the number [6]. If none of +these conditions apply [9], the background color is blue [10]. -``` -static HELLO_WORLD: &str = "Hello, world!"; +This conditional structure lets us support complex requirements. With the +hardcoded values we have here, this example will print `Using purple as the +background color`. -fn main() { - println!("value is: {HELLO_WORLD}"); -} -``` +You can see that `if let` can also introduce shadowed variables in the same way +that `match` arms can: the line `if let Ok(age) = age` [5] introduces a new +shadowed `age` variable that contains the value inside the `Ok` variant. This +means we need to place the `if age > 30` condition [6] within that block: we +can’t combine these two conditions into `if let Ok(age) = age && age > 30`. The +shadowed `age` we want to compare to 30 isn’t valid until the new scope starts +with the curly bracket. -Listing 19-9: Defining and using an immutable static variable +The downside of using `if let` expressions is that the compiler doesn’t check +for exhaustiveness, whereas with `match` expressions it does. If we omitted the +last `else` block [9] and therefore missed handling some cases, the compiler +would not alert us to the possible logic bug. -Static variables are similar to constants, which we discussed in “Constants” on -page XX. The names of static variables are in `SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE` by -convention. Static variables can only store references with the `'static` -lifetime, which means the Rust compiler can figure out the lifetime and we -aren’t required to annotate it explicitly. Accessing an immutable static -variable is safe. +### while let Conditional Loops -A subtle difference between constants and immutable static variables is that -values in a static variable have a fixed address in memory. Using the value -will always access the same data. Constants, on the other hand, are allowed to -duplicate their data whenever they’re used. Another difference is that static -variables can be mutable. Accessing and modifying mutable static variables is -*unsafe*. Listing 19-10 shows how to declare, access, and modify a mutable -static variable named `COUNTER`. +Similar in construction to `if let`, the `while let` conditional loop allows a +`while` loop to run for as long as a pattern continues to match. In Listing +18-2, we code a `while let` loop that uses a vector as a stack and prints the +values in the vector in the opposite order in which they were pushed. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -static mut COUNTER: u32 = 0; +let mut stack = Vec::new(); -fn add_to_count(inc: u32) { - unsafe { - COUNTER += inc; - } -} - -fn main() { - add_to_count(3); +stack.push(1); +stack.push(2); +stack.push(3); - unsafe { - println!("COUNTER: {COUNTER}"); - } +while let Some(top) = stack.pop() { + println!("{top}"); } ``` -Listing 19-10: Reading from or writing to a mutable static variable is unsafe. +Listing 18-2: Using a `while let` loop to print values for as long as +`stack.pop()` returns `Some` -As with regular variables, we specify mutability using the `mut` keyword. Any -code that reads or writes from `COUNTER` must be within an `unsafe` block. This -code compiles and prints `COUNTER: 3` as we would expect because it’s single -threaded. Having multiple threads access `COUNTER` would likely result in data -races. +This example prints `3`, `2`, and then `1`. The `pop` method takes the last +element out of the vector and returns `Some(value)`. If the vector is empty, +`pop` returns `None`. The `while` loop continues running the code in its block +as long as `pop` returns `Some`. When `pop` returns `None`, the loop stops. We +can use `while let` to pop every element off our stack. -With mutable data that is globally accessible, it’s difficult to ensure there -are no data races, which is why Rust considers mutable static variables to be -unsafe. Where possible, it’s preferable to use the concurrency techniques and -thread-safe smart pointers we discussed in Chapter 16 so the compiler checks -that data access from different threads is done safely. +### for Loops -### Implementing an Unsafe Trait +In a `for` loop, the value that directly follows the keyword `for` is a +pattern. For example, in `for x in y`, the `x` is the pattern. Listing 18-3 +demonstrates how to use a pattern in a `for` loop to *destructure*, or break +apart, a tuple as part of the `for` loop. -We can use `unsafe` to implement an unsafe trait. A trait is unsafe when at -least one of its methods has some invariant that the compiler can’t verify. We -declare that a trait is `unsafe` by adding the `unsafe` keyword before `trait` -and marking the implementation of the trait as `unsafe` too, as shown in -Listing 19-11. +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -unsafe trait Foo { - // methods go here -} +let v = vec!['a', 'b', 'c']; -unsafe impl Foo for i32 { - // method implementations go here +for (index, value) in v.iter().enumerate() { + println!("{value} is at index {index}"); } ``` -Listing 19-11: Defining and implementing an unsafe trait - -By using `unsafe impl`, we’re promising that we’ll uphold the invariants that -the compiler can’t verify. - -As an example, recall the `Send` and `Sync` marker traits we discussed in -“Extensible Concurrency with the Send and Sync Traits” on page XX: the compiler -implements these traits automatically if our types are composed entirely of -`Send` and `Sync` types. If we implement a type that contains a type that is -not `Send` or `Sync`, such as raw pointers, and we want to mark that type as -`Send` or `Sync`, we must use `unsafe`. Rust can’t verify that our type upholds -the guarantees that it can be safely sent across threads or accessed from -multiple threads; therefore, we need to do those checks manually and indicate -as such with `unsafe`. - -### Accessing Fields of a Union - -The final action that works only with `unsafe` is accessing fields of a union. -A `union` is similar to a `struct`, but only one declared field is used in a -particular instance at one time. Unions are primarily used to interface with -unions in C code. Accessing union fields is unsafe because Rust can’t guarantee -the type of the data currently being stored in the union instance. You can -learn more about unions in the Rust Reference at -*https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/items/unions.html**.* +Listing 18-3: Using a pattern in a `for` loop to destructure a tuple -### When to Use Unsafe Code - -Using `unsafe` to use one of the five superpowers just discussed isn’t wrong or -even frowned upon, but it is trickier to get `unsafe` code correct because the -compiler can’t help uphold memory safety. When you have a reason to use -`unsafe` code, you can do so, and having the explicit `unsafe` annotation makes -it easier to track down the source of problems when they occur. - -## Advanced Traits - -We first covered traits in “Traits: Defining Shared Behavior” on page XX, but -we didn’t discuss the more advanced details. Now that you know more about Rust, -we can get into the nitty-gritty. - -### Associated Types - -*Associated types* connect a type placeholder with a trait such that the trait -method definitions can use these placeholder types in their signatures. The -implementor of a trait will specify the concrete type to be used instead of the -placeholder type for the particular implementation. That way, we can define a -trait that uses some types without needing to know exactly what those types are -until the trait is implemented. - -We’ve described most of the advanced features in this chapter as being rarely -needed. Associated types are somewhere in the middle: they’re used more rarely -than features explained in the rest of the book but more commonly than many of -the other features discussed in this chapter. - -One example of a trait with an associated type is the `Iterator` trait that the -standard library provides. The associated type is named `Item` and stands in -for the type of the values the type implementing the `Iterator` trait is -iterating over. The definition of the `Iterator` trait is as shown in Listing -19-12. +The code in Listing 18-3 will print the following: ``` -pub trait Iterator { - type Item; - - fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item>; -} +a is at index 0 +b is at index 1 +c is at index 2 ``` -Listing 19-12: The definition of the `Iterator` trait that has an associated -type `Item` +We adapt an iterator using the `enumerate` method so it produces a value and +the index for that value, placed into a tuple. The first value produced is the +tuple `(0, 'a')`. When this value is matched to the pattern `(index, value)`, +`index` will be `0` and `value` will be `'a'`, printing the first line of the +output. -The type `Item` is a placeholder, and the `next` method’s definition shows that -it will return values of type `Option<Self::Item>`. Implementors of the -`Iterator` trait will specify the concrete type for `Item`, and the `next` -method will return an `Option` containing a value of that concrete type. +### let Statements -Associated types might seem like a similar concept to generics, in that the -latter allow us to define a function without specifying what types it can -handle. To examine the difference between the two concepts, we’ll look at an -implementation of the `Iterator` trait on a type named `Counter` that specifies -the `Item` type is `u32`: - -Filename: src/lib.rs +Prior to this chapter, we had only explicitly discussed using patterns with +`match` and `if let`, but in fact, we’ve used patterns in other places as well, +including in `let` statements. For example, consider this straightforward +variable assignment with `let`: ``` -impl Iterator for Counter { - type Item = u32; - - fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> { - --snip-- +let x = 5; ``` -This syntax seems comparable to that of generics. So why not just define the -`Iterator` trait with generics, as shown in Listing 19-13? +Every time you’ve used a `let` statement like this you’ve been using patterns, +although you might not have realized it! More formally, a `let` statement looks +like this: ``` -pub trait Iterator<T> { - fn next(&mut self) -> Option<T>; -} +let PATTERN = EXPRESSION; ``` -Listing 19-13: A hypothetical definition of the `Iterator` trait using generics - -The difference is that when using generics, as in Listing 19-13, we must -annotate the types in each implementation; because we can also implement -`Iterator<``String``> for Counter` or any other type, we could have multiple -implementations of `Iterator` for `Counter`. In other words, when a trait has a -generic parameter, it can be implemented for a type multiple times, changing -the concrete types of the generic type parameters each time. When we use the -`next` method on `Counter`, we would have to provide type annotations to -indicate which implementation of `Iterator` we want to use. - -With associated types, we don’t need to annotate types because we can’t -implement a trait on a type multiple times. In Listing 19-12 with the -definition that uses associated types, we can choose what the type of `Item` -will be only once because there can be only one `impl Iterator for Counter`. We -don’t have to specify that we want an iterator of `u32` values everywhere we -call `next` on `Counter`. - -Associated types also become part of the trait’s contract: implementors of the -trait must provide a type to stand in for the associated type placeholder. -Associated types often have a name that describes how the type will be used, -and documenting the associated type in the API documentation is a good practice. - -### Default Generic Type Parameters and Operator Overloading - -When we use generic type parameters, we can specify a default concrete type for -the generic type. This eliminates the need for implementors of the trait to -specify a concrete type if the default type works. You specify a default type -when declaring a generic type with the `<`PlaceholderType`=`ConcreteType`>` -syntax. - -A great example of a situation where this technique is useful is with *operator -overloading*, in which you customize the behavior of an operator (such as `+`) -in particular situations. - -Rust doesn’t allow you to create your own operators or overload arbitrary -operators. But you can overload the operations and corresponding traits listed -in `std::ops` by implementing the traits associated with the operator. For -example, in Listing 19-14 we overload the `+` operator to add two `Point` -instances together. We do this by implementing the `Add` trait on a `Point` -struct. +In statements like `let x = 5;` with a variable name in the PATTERN slot, the +variable name is just a particularly simple form of a pattern. Rust compares +the expression against the pattern and assigns any names it finds. So, in the +`let x = 5;` example, `x` is a pattern that means “bind what matches here to +the variable `x`.” Because the name `x` is the whole pattern, this pattern +effectively means “bind everything to the variable `x`, whatever the value is.” -Filename: src/main.rs +To see the pattern-matching aspect of `let` more clearly, consider Listing +18-4, which uses a pattern with `let` to destructure a tuple. ``` -use std::ops::Add; - -#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq)] -struct Point { - x: i32, - y: i32, -} - -impl Add for Point { - type Output = Point; - - fn add(self, other: Point) -> Point { - Point { - x: self.x + other.x, - y: self.y + other.y, - } - } -} - -fn main() { - assert_eq!( - Point { x: 1, y: 0 } + Point { x: 2, y: 3 }, - Point { x: 3, y: 3 } - ); -} +let (x, y, z) = (1, 2, 3); ``` -Listing 19-14: Implementing the `Add` trait to overload the `+` operator for -`Point` instances +Listing 18-4: Using a pattern to destructure a tuple and create three variables +at once -The `add` method adds the `x` values of two `Point` instances and the `y` -values of two `Point` instances to create a new `Point`. The `Add` trait has an -associated type named `Output` that determines the type returned from the `add` -method. +Here, we match a tuple against a pattern. Rust compares the value `(1, 2, 3)` +to the pattern `(x, y, z)` and sees that the value matches the pattern, in that +it sees that the number of elements is the same in both, so Rust binds `1` to +`x`, `2` to `y`, and `3` to `z`. You can think of this tuple pattern as nesting +three individual variable patterns inside it. -The default generic type in this code is within the `Add` trait. Here is its -definition: +If the number of elements in the pattern doesn’t match the number of elements +in the tuple, the overall type won’t match and we’ll get a compiler error. For +example, Listing 18-5 shows an attempt to destructure a tuple with three +elements into two variables, which won’t work. ``` -trait Add<Rhs=Self> { - type Output; - - fn add(self, rhs: Rhs) -> Self::Output; -} +let (x, y) = (1, 2, 3); ``` -This code should look generally familiar: a trait with one method and an -associated type. The new part is `Rhs=Self`: this syntax is called *default -type parameters*. The `Rhs` generic type parameter (short for “right-hand -side”) defines the type of the `rhs` parameter in the `add` method. If we don’t -specify a concrete type for `Rhs` when we implement the `Add` trait, the type -of `Rhs` will default to `Self`, which will be the type we’re implementing -`Add` on. +Listing 18-5: Incorrectly constructing a pattern whose variables don’t match +the number of elements in the tuple -When we implemented `Add` for `Point`, we used the default for `Rhs` because we -wanted to add two `Point` instances. Let’s look at an example of implementing -the `Add` trait where we want to customize the `Rhs` type rather than using the -default. - -We have two structs, `Millimeters` and `Meters`, holding values in different -units. This thin wrapping of an existing type in another struct is known as the -*newtype pattern*, which we describe in more detail in “Using the Newtype -Pattern to Implement External Traits on External Types” on page XX. We want to -add values in millimeters to values in meters and have the implementation of -`Add` do the conversion correctly. We can implement `Add` for `Millimeters` -with `Meters` as the `Rhs`, as shown in Listing 19-15. - -Filename: src/lib.rs +Attempting to compile this code results in this type error: ``` -use std::ops::Add; - -struct Millimeters(u32); -struct Meters(u32); - -impl Add<Meters> for Millimeters { - type Output = Millimeters; - - fn add(self, other: Meters) -> Millimeters { - Millimeters(self.0 + (other.0 * 1000)) - } -} +error[E0308]: mismatched types + --> src/main.rs:2:9 + | +2 | let (x, y) = (1, 2, 3); + | ^^^^^^ --------- this expression has type `({integer}, {integer}, +{integer})` + | | + | expected a tuple with 3 elements, found one with 2 elements + | + = note: expected tuple `({integer}, {integer}, {integer})` + found tuple `(_, _)` ``` -Listing 19-15: Implementing the `Add` trait on `Millimeters` to add -`Millimeters` and `Meters` - -To add `Millimeters` and `Meters`, we specify `impl Add<Meters>` to set the -value of the `Rhs` type parameter instead of using the default of `Self`. - -You’ll use default type parameters in two main ways: - -1. To extend a type without breaking existing code -1. To allow customization in specific cases most users won’t need +To fix the error, we could ignore one or more of the values in the tuple using +`_` or `..`, as you’ll see in “Ignoring Values in a Pattern” on page XX. If the +problem is that we have too many variables in the pattern, the solution is to +make the types match by removing variables so the number of variables equals +the number of elements in the tuple. -The standard library’s `Add` trait is an example of the second purpose: -usually, you’ll add two like types, but the `Add` trait provides the ability to -customize beyond that. Using a default type parameter in the `Add` trait -definition means you don’t have to specify the extra parameter most of the -time. In other words, a bit of implementation boilerplate isn’t needed, making -it easier to use the trait. +### Function Parameters -The first purpose is similar to the second but in reverse: if you want to add a -type parameter to an existing trait, you can give it a default to allow -extension of the functionality of the trait without breaking the existing -implementation code. - -### Disambiguating Between Methods with the Same Name - -Nothing in Rust prevents a trait from having a method with the same name as -another trait’s method, nor does Rust prevent you from implementing both traits -on one type. It’s also possible to implement a method directly on the type with -the same name as methods from traits. - -When calling methods with the same name, you’ll need to tell Rust which one you -want to use. Consider the code in Listing 19-16 where we’ve defined two traits, -`Pilot` and `Wizard`, that both have a method called `fly`. We then implement -both traits on a type `Human` that already has a method named `fly` implemented -on it. Each `fly` method does something different. - -Filename: src/main.rs +Function parameters can also be patterns. The code in Listing 18-6, which +declares a function named `foo` that takes one parameter named `x` of type +`i32`, should by now look familiar. ``` -trait Pilot { - fn fly(&self); -} - -trait Wizard { - fn fly(&self); -} - -struct Human; - -impl Pilot for Human { - fn fly(&self) { - println!("This is your captain speaking."); - } -} - -impl Wizard for Human { - fn fly(&self) { - println!("Up!"); - } -} - -impl Human { - fn fly(&self) { - println!("*waving arms furiously*"); - } +fn foo(x: i32) { + // code goes here } ``` -Listing 19-16: Two traits are defined to have a `fly` method and are -implemented on the `Human` type, and a `fly` method is implemented on `Human` -directly. +Listing 18-6: A function signature using patterns in the parameters -When we call `fly` on an instance of `Human`, the compiler defaults to calling -the method that is directly implemented on the type, as shown in Listing 19-17. +The `x` part is a pattern! As we did with `let`, we could match a tuple in a +function’s arguments to the pattern. Listing 18-7 splits the values in a tuple +as we pass it to a function. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn main() { - let person = Human; - person.fly(); +fn print_coordinates(&(x, y): &(i32, i32)) { + println!("Current location: ({x}, {y})"); } -``` - -Listing 19-17: Calling `fly` on an instance of `Human` -Running this code will print `*waving arms furiously*`, showing that Rust -called the `fly` method implemented on `Human` directly. - -To call the `fly` methods from either the `Pilot` trait or the `Wizard` trait, -we need to use more explicit syntax to specify which `fly` method we mean. -Listing 19-18 demonstrates this syntax. - -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` fn main() { - let person = Human; - Pilot::fly(&person); - Wizard::fly(&person); - person.fly(); + let point = (3, 5); + print_coordinates(&point); } ``` -Listing 19-18: Specifying which trait’s `fly` method we want to call +Listing 18-7: A function with parameters that destructure a tuple -Specifying the trait name before the method name clarifies to Rust which -implementation of `fly` we want to call. We could also write -`Human::fly(&person)`, which is equivalent to the `person.fly()` that we used -in Listing 19-18, but this is a bit longer to write if we don’t need to -disambiguate. +This code prints `Current location: (3, 5)`. The values `&(3, 5)` match the +pattern `&(x, y)`, so `x` is the value `3` and `y` is the value `5`. -Running this code prints the following: +We can also use patterns in closure parameter lists in the same way as in +function parameter lists because closures are similar to functions, as +discussed in Chapter 13. -``` -This is your captain speaking. -Up! -*waving arms furiously* -``` +At this point, you’ve seen several ways to use patterns, but patterns don’t +work the same in every place we can use them. In some places, the patterns must +be irrefutable; in other circumstances, they can be refutable. We’ll discuss +these two concepts next. -Because the `fly` method takes a `self` parameter, if we had two *types* that -both implement one *trait*, Rust could figure out which implementation of a -trait to use based on the type of `self`. +## Refutability: Whether a Pattern Might Fail to Match -However, associated functions that are not methods don’t have a `self` -parameter. When there are multiple types or traits that define non-method -functions with the same function name, Rust doesn’t always know which type you -mean unless you use fully qualified syntax. For example, in Listing 19-19 we -create a trait for an animal shelter that wants to name all baby dogs Spot. We -make an `Animal` trait with an associated non-method function `baby_name`. The -`Animal` trait is implemented for the struct `Dog`, on which we also provide an -associated non-method function `baby_name` directly. +Patterns come in two forms: refutable and irrefutable. Patterns that will match +for any possible value passed are *irrefutable*. An example would be `x` in the +statement `let x = 5;` because `x` matches anything and therefore cannot fail +to match. Patterns that can fail to match for some possible value are +*refutable*. An example would be `Some(x)` in the expression `if let Some(x) = +a_value` because if the value in the `a_value` variable is `None` rather than +`Some`, the `Some(x)` pattern will not match. -Filename: src/main.rs +Function parameters, `let` statements, and `for` loops can only accept +irrefutable patterns because the program cannot do anything meaningful when +values don’t match. The `if let` and `while let` expressions accept refutable +and irrefutable patterns, but the compiler warns against irrefutable patterns +because, by definition, they’re intended to handle possible failure: the +functionality of a conditional is in its ability to perform differently +depending on success or failure. -``` -trait Animal { - fn baby_name() -> String; -} - -struct Dog; - -impl Dog { - fn baby_name() -> String { - String::from("Spot") - } -} +In general, you shouldn’t have to worry about the distinction between refutable +and irrefutable patterns; however, you do need to be familiar with the concept +of refutability so you can respond when you see it in an error message. In +those cases, you’ll need to change either the pattern or the construct you’re +using the pattern with, depending on the intended behavior of the code. -impl Animal for Dog { - fn baby_name() -> String { - String::from("puppy") - } -} +Let’s look at an example of what happens when we try to use a refutable pattern +where Rust requires an irrefutable pattern and vice versa. Listing 18-8 shows a +`let` statement, but for the pattern, we’ve specified `Some(x)`, a refutable +pattern. As you might expect, this code will not compile. -fn main() { - println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Dog::baby_name()); -} ``` - -Listing 19-19: A trait with an associated function and a type with an -associated function of the same name that also implements the trait - -We implement the code for naming all puppies Spot in the `baby_name` associated -function that is defined on `Dog`. The `Dog` type also implements the trait -`Animal`, which describes characteristics that all animals have. Baby dogs are -called puppies, and that is expressed in the implementation of the `Animal` -trait on `Dog` in the `baby_name` function associated with the `Animal` trait. - -In `main`, we call the `Dog::baby_name` function, which calls the associated -function defined on `Dog` directly. This code prints the following: - -``` -A baby dog is called a Spot +let Some(x) = some_option_value; ``` -This output isn’t what we wanted. We want to call the `baby_name` function that -is part of the `Animal` trait that we implemented on `Dog` so the code prints -`A baby dog is called a puppy`. The technique of specifying the trait name that -we used in Listing 19-18 doesn’t help here; if we change `main` to the code in -Listing 19-20, we’ll get a compilation error. +Listing 18-8: Attempting to use a refutable pattern with `let` -Filename: src/main.rs +If `some_option_value` were a `None` value, it would fail to match the pattern +`Some(x)`, meaning the pattern is refutable. However, the `let` statement can +only accept an irrefutable pattern because there is nothing valid the code can +do with a `None` value. At compile time, Rust will complain that we’ve tried to +use a refutable pattern where an irrefutable pattern is required: ``` -fn main() { - println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Animal::baby_name()); -} +error[E0005]: refutable pattern in local binding: `None` not covered + --> src/main.rs:3:9 + | +3 | let Some(x) = some_option_value; + | ^^^^^^^ pattern `None` not covered + | + = note: `let` bindings require an "irrefutable pattern", like a `struct` or +an `enum` with only one variant + = note: for more information, visit +https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch18-02-refutability.html + = note: the matched value is of type `Option<i32>` +help: you might want to use `if let` to ignore the variant that isn't matched + | +3 | let x = if let Some(x) = some_option_value { x } else { todo!() }; + | ++++++++++ ++++++++++++++++++++++ ``` -Listing 19-20: Attempting to call the `baby_name` function from the `Animal` -trait, but Rust doesn’t know which implementation to use +Because we didn’t cover (and couldn’t cover!) every valid value with the +pattern `Some(x)`, Rust rightfully produces a compiler error. -Because `Animal::baby_name` doesn’t have a `self` parameter, and there could be -other types that implement the `Animal` trait, Rust can’t figure out which -implementation of `Animal::baby_name` we want. We’ll get this compiler error: +If we have a refutable pattern where an irrefutable pattern is needed, we can +fix it by changing the code that uses the pattern: instead of using `let`, we +can use `if let`. Then, if the pattern doesn’t match, the code will just skip +the code in the curly brackets, giving it a way to continue validly. Listing +18-9 shows how to fix the code in Listing 18-8. ``` -error[E0283]: type annotations needed - --> src/main.rs:20:43 - | -20 | println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Animal::baby_name()); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ cannot infer -type - | - = note: cannot satisfy `_: Animal` -``` - -To disambiguate and tell Rust that we want to use the implementation of -`Animal` for `Dog` as opposed to the implementation of `Animal` for some other -type, we need to use fully qualified syntax. Listing 19-21 demonstrates how to -use fully qualified syntax. - -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` -fn main() { - println!( - "A baby dog is called a {}", - <Dog as Animal>::baby_name() - ); +if let Some(x) = some_option_value { + println!("{x}"); } ``` -Listing 19-21: Using fully qualified syntax to specify that we want to call the -`baby_name` function from the `Animal` trait as implemented on `Dog` +Listing 18-9: Using `if let` and a block with refutable patterns instead of +`let` -We’re providing Rust with a type annotation within the angle brackets, which -indicates we want to call the `baby_name` method from the `Animal` trait as -implemented on `Dog` by saying that we want to treat the `Dog` type as an -`Animal` for this function call. This code will now print what we want: +We’ve given the code an out! This code is perfectly valid, although it means we +cannot use an irrefutable pattern without receiving an error. If we give `if +let` a pattern that will always match, such as `x`, as shown in Listing 18-10, +the compiler will give a warning. ``` -A baby dog is called a puppy +if let x = 5 { + println!("{x}"); +}; ``` -In general, fully qualified syntax is defined as follows: +Listing 18-10: Attempting to use an irrefutable pattern with `if let` + +Rust complains that it doesn’t make sense to use `if let` with an irrefutable +pattern: ``` -<Type as Trait>::function(receiver_if_method, next_arg, ...); +warning: irrefutable `if let` pattern + --> src/main.rs:2:8 + | +2 | if let x = 5 { + | ^^^^^^^^^ + | + = note: `#[warn(irrefutable_let_patterns)]` on by default + = note: this pattern will always match, so the `if let` is +useless + = help: consider replacing the `if let` with a `let` ``` -For associated functions that aren’t methods, there would not be a `receiver`: -there would only be the list of other arguments. You could use fully qualified -syntax everywhere that you call functions or methods. However, you’re allowed -to omit any part of this syntax that Rust can figure out from other information -in the program. You only need to use this more verbose syntax in cases where -there are multiple implementations that use the same name and Rust needs help -to identify which implementation you want to call. +For this reason, match arms must use refutable patterns, except for the last +arm, which should match any remaining values with an irrefutable pattern. Rust +allows us to use an irrefutable pattern in a `match` with only one arm, but +this syntax isn’t particularly useful and could be replaced with a simpler +`let` statement. -### Using Supertraits +Now that you know where to use patterns and the difference between refutable +and irrefutable patterns, let’s cover all the syntax we can use to create +patterns. -Sometimes you might write a trait definition that depends on another trait: for -a type to implement the first trait, you want to require that type to also -implement the second trait. You would do this so that your trait definition can -make use of the associated items of the second trait. The trait your trait -definition is relying on is called a *supertrait* of your trait. +## Pattern Syntax -For example, let’s say we want to make an `OutlinePrint` trait with an -`outline_print` method that will print a given value formatted so that it’s -framed in asterisks. That is, given a `Point` struct that implements the -standard library trait `Display` to result in `(x, y)`, when we call -`outline_print` on a `Point` instance that has `1` for `x` and `3` for `y`, it -should print the following: +In this section, we gather all the syntax that is valid in patterns and discuss +why and when you might want to use each one. -``` -********** -* * -* (1, 3) * -* * -********** -``` +### Matching Literals -In the implementation of the `outline_print` method, we want to use the -`Display` trait’s functionality. Therefore, we need to specify that the -`OutlinePrint` trait will work only for types that also implement `Display` and -provide the functionality that `OutlinePrint` needs. We can do that in the -trait definition by specifying `OutlinePrint: Display`. This technique is -similar to adding a trait bound to the trait. Listing 19-22 shows an -implementation of the `OutlinePrint` trait. +As you saw in Chapter 6, you can match patterns against literals directly. The +following code gives some examples: Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use std::fmt; +let x = 1; -trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display { - fn outline_print(&self) { - let output = self.to_string(); - let len = output.len(); - println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4)); - println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2)); - println!("* {} *", output); - println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2)); - println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4)); - } +match x { + 1 => println!("one"), + 2 => println!("two"), + 3 => println!("three"), + _ => println!("anything"), } ``` -Listing 19-22: Implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait that requires the -functionality from `Display` +This code prints `one` because the value in `x` is `1`. This syntax is useful +when you want your code to take an action if it gets a particular concrete +value. -Because we’ve specified that `OutlinePrint` requires the `Display` trait, we -can use the `to_string` function that is automatically implemented for any type -that implements `Display`. If we tried to use `to_string` without adding a -colon and specifying the `Display` trait after the trait name, we’d get an -error saying that no method named `to_string` was found for the type `&Self` in -the current scope. +### Matching Named Variables -Let’s see what happens when we try to implement `OutlinePrint` on a type that -doesn’t implement `Display`, such as the `Point` struct: +Named variables are irrefutable patterns that match any value, and we’ve used +them many times in this book. However, there is a complication when you use +named variables in `match` expressions. Because `match` starts a new scope, +variables declared as part of a pattern inside the `match` expression will +shadow those with the same name outside the `match` construct, as is the case +with all variables. In Listing 18-11, we declare a variable named `x` with the +value `Some(5)` and a variable `y` with the value `10`. We then create a +`match` expression on the value `x`. Look at the patterns in the match arms and +`println!` at the end, and try to figure out what the code will print before +running this code or reading further. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -struct Point { - x: i32, - y: i32, -} - -impl OutlinePrint for Point {} -``` +fn main() { + 1 let x = Some(5); + 2 let y = 10; -We get an error saying that `Display` is required but not implemented: + match x { + 3 Some(50) => println!("Got 50"), + 4 Some(y) => println!("Matched, y = {y}"), + 5 _ => println!("Default case, x = {:?}", x), + } -``` -error[E0277]: `Point` doesn't implement `std::fmt::Display` - --> src/main.rs:20:6 - | -20 | impl OutlinePrint for Point {} - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ `Point` cannot be formatted with the default formatter - | - = help: the trait `std::fmt::Display` is not implemented for `Point` - = note: in format strings you may be able to use `{:?}` (or {:#?} for -pretty-print) instead -note: required by a bound in `OutlinePrint` - --> src/main.rs:3:21 - | -3 | trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display { - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ required by this bound in `OutlinePrint` + 6 println!("at the end: x = {:?}, y = {y}", x); +} ``` -To fix this, we implement `Display` on `Point` and satisfy the constraint that -`OutlinePrint` requires, like so: +Listing 18-11: A `match` expression with an arm that introduces a shadowed +variable `y` -Filename: src/main.rs +Let’s walk through what happens when the `match` expression runs. The pattern +in the first match arm [3] doesn’t match the defined value of `x` [1], so the +code continues. -``` -use std::fmt; +The pattern in the second match arm [4] introduces a new variable named `y` +that will match any value inside a `Some` value. Because we’re in a new scope +inside the `match` expression, this is a new `y` variable, not the `y` we +declared at the beginning with the value `10` [2]. This new `y` binding will +match any value inside a `Some`, which is what we have in `x`. Therefore, this +new `y` binds to the inner value of the `Some` in `x`. That value is `5`, so +the expression for that arm executes and prints `Matched, y = 5`. -impl fmt::Display for Point { - fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result { - write!(f, "({}, {})", self.x, self.y) - } -} -``` +If `x` had been a `None` value instead of `Some(5)`, the patterns in the first +two arms wouldn’t have matched, so the value would have matched to the +underscore [5]. We didn’t introduce the `x` variable in the pattern of the +underscore arm, so the `x` in the expression is still the outer `x` that hasn’t +been shadowed. In this hypothetical case, the `match` would print `Default +case, x = None`. -Then, implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait on `Point` will compile -successfully, and we can call `outline_print` on a `Point` instance to display -it within an outline of asterisks. +When the `match` expression is done, its scope ends, and so does the scope of +the inner `y`. The last `println!` [6] produces `at the end: x = Some(5), y = +10`. -### Using the Newtype Pattern to Implement External Traits +To create a `match` expression that compares the values of the outer `x` and +`y`, rather than introducing a shadowed variable, we would need to use a match +guard conditional instead. We’ll talk about match guards in “Extra Conditionals +with Match Guards” on page XX. -In “Implementing a Trait on a Type” on page XX, we mentioned the orphan rule -that states we’re only allowed to implement a trait on a type if either the -trait or the type, or both, are local to our crate. It’s possible to get around -this restriction using the *newtype pattern*, which involves creating a new -type in a tuple struct. (We covered tuple structs in “Using Tuple Structs -Without Named Fields to Create Different Types” on page XX.) The tuple struct -will have one field and be a thin wrapper around the type for which we want to -implement a trait. Then the wrapper type is local to our crate, and we can -implement the trait on the wrapper. *Newtype* is a term that originates from -the Haskell programming language. There is no runtime performance penalty for -using this pattern, and the wrapper type is elided at compile time. +### Multiple Patterns -As an example, let’s say we want to implement `Display` on `Vec<T>`, which the -orphan rule prevents us from doing directly because the `Display` trait and the -`Vec<T>` type are defined outside our crate. We can make a `Wrapper` struct -that holds an instance of `Vec<T>`; then we can implement `Display` on -`Wrapper` and use the `Vec<T>` value, as shown in Listing 19-23. +In `match` expressions, you can match multiple patterns using the `|` syntax, +which is the pattern *or* operator. For example, in the following code we match +the value of `x` against the match arms, the first of which has an *or* option, +meaning if the value of `x` matches either of the values in that arm, that +arm’s code will run: Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use std::fmt; - -struct Wrapper(Vec<String>); - -impl fmt::Display for Wrapper { - fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result { - write!(f, "[{}]", self.0.join(", ")) - } -} +let x = 1; -fn main() { - let w = Wrapper(vec![ - String::from("hello"), - String::from("world"), - ]); - println!("w = {w}"); +match x { + 1 | 2 => println!("one or two"), + 3 => println!("three"), + _ => println!("anything"), } ``` -Listing 19-23: Creating a `Wrapper` type around `Vec<String>` to implement -`Display` - -The implementation of `Display` uses `self.0` to access the inner `Vec<T>` -because `Wrapper` is a tuple struct and `Vec<T>` is the item at index 0 in the -tuple. Then we can use the functionality of the `Display` type on `Wrapper`. - -The downside of using this technique is that `Wrapper` is a new type, so it -doesn’t have the methods of the value it’s holding. We would have to implement -all the methods of `Vec<T>` directly on `Wrapper` such that the methods -delegate to `self.0`, which would allow us to treat `Wrapper` exactly like a -`Vec<T>`. If we wanted the new type to have every method the inner type has, -implementing the `Deref` trait on the `Wrapper` to return the inner type would -be a solution (we discussed implementing the `Deref` trait in “Treating Smart -Pointers Like Regular References with Deref” on page XX). If we didn’t want the -`Wrapper` type to have all the methods of the inner type—for example, to -restrict the `Wrapper` type’s behavior—we would have to implement just the -methods we do want manually. - -This newtype pattern is also useful even when traits are not involved. Let’s -switch focus and look at some advanced ways to interact with Rust’s type system. - -## Advanced Types - -The Rust type system has some features that we’ve so far mentioned but haven’t -yet discussed. We’ll start by discussing newtypes in general as we examine why -newtypes are useful as types. Then we’ll move on to type aliases, a feature -similar to newtypes but with slightly different semantics. We’ll also discuss -the `!` type and dynamically sized types. +This code prints `one or two`. -### Using the Newtype Pattern for Type Safety and Abstraction +### Matching Ranges of Values with ..= -> Note: This section assumes you’ve read the earlier section “Using the Newtype -Pattern to Implement External Traits” on page XX. +The `..=` syntax allows us to match to an inclusive range of values. In the +following code, when a pattern matches any of the values within the given +range, that arm will execute: -The newtype pattern is also useful for tasks beyond those we’ve discussed so -far, including statically enforcing that values are never confused and -indicating the units of a value. You saw an example of using newtypes to -indicate units in Listing 19-15: recall that the `Millimeters` and `Meters` -structs wrapped `u32` values in a newtype. If we wrote a function with a -parameter of type `Millimeters`, we wouldn’t be able to compile a program that -accidentally tried to call that function with a value of type `Meters` or a -plain `u32`. - -We can also use the newtype pattern to abstract away some implementation -details of a type: the new type can expose a public API that is different from -the API of the private inner type. - -Newtypes can also hide internal implementation. For example, we could provide a -`People` type to wrap a `HashMap<i32, String>` that stores a person’s ID -associated with their name. Code using `People` would only interact with the -public API we provide, such as a method to add a name string to the `People` -collection; that code wouldn’t need to know that we assign an `i32` ID to names -internally. The newtype pattern is a lightweight way to achieve encapsulation -to hide implementation details, which we discussed in “Encapsulation That Hides -Implementation Details” on page XX. - -### Creating Type Synonyms with Type Aliases - -Rust provides the ability to declare a *type alias* to give an existing type -another name. For this we use the `type` keyword. For example, we can create -the alias `Kilometers` to `i32` like so: - -``` -type Kilometers = i32; -``` - -Now the alias `Kilometers` is a *synonym* for `i32`; unlike the `Millimeters` -and `Meters` types we created in Listing 19-15, `Kilometers` is not a separate, -new type. Values that have the type `Kilometers` will be treated the same as -values of type `i32`: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -type Kilometers = i32; +let x = 5; -let x: i32 = 5; -let y: Kilometers = 5; - -println!("x + y = {}", x + y); +match x { + 1..=5 => println!("one through five"), + _ => println!("something else"), +} ``` -Because `Kilometers` and `i32` are the same type, we can add values of both -types and we can pass `Kilometers` values to functions that take `i32` -parameters. However, using this method, we don’t get the type-checking benefits -that we get from the newtype pattern discussed earlier. In other words, if we -mix up `Kilometers` and `i32` values somewhere, the compiler will not give us -an error. +If `x` is `1`, `2`, `3`, `4`, or `5`, the first arm will match. This syntax is +more convenient for multiple match values than using the `|` operator to +express the same idea; if we were to use `|`, we would have to specify `1 | 2 | +3 | 4 | 5`. Specifying a range is much shorter, especially if we want to match, +say, any number between 1 and 1,000! -The main use case for type synonyms is to reduce repetition. For example, we -might have a lengthy type like this: +The compiler checks that the range isn’t empty at compile time, and because the +only types for which Rust can tell if a range is empty or not are `char` and +numeric values, ranges are only allowed with numeric or `char` values. -``` -Box<dyn Fn() + Send + 'static> -``` +Here is an example using ranges of `char` values: -Writing this lengthy type in function signatures and as type annotations all -over the code can be tiresome and error prone. Imagine having a project full of -code like that in Listing 19-24. +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -let f: Box<dyn Fn() + Send + 'static> = Box::new(|| { - println!("hi"); -}); +let x = 'c'; -fn takes_long_type(f: Box<dyn Fn() + Send + 'static>) { - --snip-- +match x { + 'a'..='j' => println!("early ASCII letter"), + 'k'..='z' => println!("late ASCII letter"), + _ => println!("something else"), } - -fn returns_long_type() -> Box<dyn Fn() + Send + 'static> { - --snip-- -} -``` - -Listing 19-24: Using a long type in many places - -A type alias makes this code more manageable by reducing the repetition. In -Listing 19-25, we’ve introduced an alias named `Thunk` for the verbose type and -can replace all uses of the type with the shorter alias `Thunk`. - ``` -type Thunk = Box<dyn Fn() + Send + 'static>; -let f: Thunk = Box::new(|| println!("hi")); +Rust can tell that `'c'` is within the first pattern’s range and prints `early +ASCII letter`. -fn takes_long_type(f: Thunk) { - --snip-- -} +### Destructuring to Break Apart Values -fn returns_long_type() -> Thunk { - --snip-- -} -``` +We can also use patterns to destructure structs, enums, and tuples to use +different parts of these values. Let’s walk through each value. -Listing 19-25: Introducing a type alias `Thunk` to reduce repetition +#### Destructuring Structs -This code is much easier to read and write! Choosing a meaningful name for a -type alias can help communicate your intent as well (*thunk* is a word for code -to be evaluated at a later time, so it’s an appropriate name for a closure that -gets stored). +Listing 18-12 shows a `Point` struct with two fields, `x` and `y`, that we can +break apart using a pattern with a `let` statement. -Type aliases are also commonly used with the `Result<T, E>` type for reducing -repetition. Consider the `std::io` module in the standard library. I/O -operations often return a `Result<T, E>` to handle situations when operations -fail to work. This library has a `std::io::Error` struct that represents all -possible I/O errors. Many of the functions in `std::io` will be returning -`Result<T, E>` where the `E` is `std::io::Error`, such as these functions in -the `Write` trait: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use std::fmt; -use std::io::Error; +struct Point { + x: i32, + y: i32, +} -pub trait Write { - fn write(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<usize, Error>; - fn flush(&mut self) -> Result<(), Error>; +fn main() { + let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; - fn write_all(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<(), Error>; - fn write_fmt( - &mut self, - fmt: fmt::Arguments, - ) -> Result<(), Error>; + let Point { x: a, y: b } = p; + assert_eq!(0, a); + assert_eq!(7, b); } ``` -The `Result<..., Error>` is repeated a lot. As such, `std::io` has this type -alias declaration: +Listing 18-12: Destructuring a struct’s fields into separate variables -``` -type Result<T> = std::result::Result<T, std::io::Error>; -``` +This code creates the variables `a` and `b` that match the values of the `x` +and `y` fields of the `p` struct. This example shows that the names of the +variables in the pattern don’t have to match the field names of the struct. +However, it’s common to match the variable names to the field names to make it +easier to remember which variables came from which fields. Because of this +common usage, and because writing `let Point { x: x, y: y } = p;` contains a +lot of duplication, Rust has a shorthand for patterns that match struct fields: +you only need to list the name of the struct field, and the variables created +from the pattern will have the same names. Listing 18-13 behaves in the same +way as the code in Listing 18-12, but the variables created in the `let` +pattern are `x` and `y` instead of `a` and `b`. -Because this declaration is in the `std::io` module, we can use the fully -qualified alias `std::io::Result<T>`; that is, a `Result<T, E>` with the `E` -filled in as `std::io::Error`. The `Write` trait function signatures end up -looking like this: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -pub trait Write { - fn write(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<usize>; - fn flush(&mut self) -> Result<()>; - - fn write_all(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<()>; - fn write_fmt(&mut self, fmt: fmt::Arguments) -> Result<()>; +struct Point { + x: i32, + y: i32, } -``` -The type alias helps in two ways: it makes code easier to write *and* it gives -us a consistent interface across all of `std::io`. Because it’s an alias, it’s -just another `Result<T, E>`, which means we can use any methods that work on -`Result<T, E>` with it, as well as special syntax like the `?` operator. - -### The Never Type That Never Returns - -Rust has a special type named `!` that’s known in type theory lingo as the -*empty type* because it has no values. We prefer to call it the *never type* -because it stands in the place of the return type when a function will never -return. Here is an example: +fn main() { + let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; -``` -fn bar() -> ! { - --snip-- + let Point { x, y } = p; + assert_eq!(0, x); + assert_eq!(7, y); } ``` -This code is read as “the function `bar` returns never.” Functions that return -never are called *diverging functions*. We can’t create values of the type `!`, -so `bar` can never possibly return. +Listing 18-13: Destructuring struct fields using struct field shorthand -But what use is a type you can never create values for? Recall the code from -Listing 2-5, part of the number-guessing game; we’ve reproduced a bit of it -here in Listing 19-26. +This code creates the variables `x` and `y` that match the `x` and `y` fields +of the `p` variable. The outcome is that the variables `x` and `y` contain the +values from the `p` struct. -``` -let guess: u32 = match guess.trim().parse() { - Ok(num) => num, - Err(_) => continue, -}; -``` +We can also destructure with literal values as part of the struct pattern +rather than creating variables for all the fields. Doing so allows us to test +some of the fields for particular values while creating variables to +destructure the other fields. -Listing 19-26: A `match` with an arm that ends in `continue` +In Listing 18-14, we have a `match` expression that separates `Point` values +into three cases: points that lie directly on the `x` axis (which is true when +`y = 0`), on the `y` axis (`x = 0`), or on neither axis. -At the time, we skipped over some details in this code. In “The match Control -Flow Construct” on page XX, we discussed that `match` arms must all return the -same type. So, for example, the following code doesn’t work: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -let guess = match guess.trim().parse() { - Ok(_) => 5, - Err(_) => "hello", -}; -``` - -The type of `guess` in this code would have to be an integer *and* a string, -and Rust requires that `guess` have only one type. So what does `continue` -return? How were we allowed to return a `u32` from one arm and have another arm -that ends with `continue` in Listing 19-26? - -As you might have guessed, `continue` has a `!` value. That is, when Rust -computes the type of `guess`, it looks at both match arms, the former with a -value of `u32` and the latter with a `!` value. Because `!` can never have a -value, Rust decides that the type of `guess` is `u32`. - -The formal way of describing this behavior is that expressions of type `!` can -be coerced into any other type. We’re allowed to end this `match` arm with -`continue` because `continue` doesn’t return a value; instead, it moves control -back to the top of the loop, so in the `Err` case, we never assign a value to -`guess`. - -The never type is useful with the `panic!` macro as well. Recall the `unwrap` -function that we call on `Option<T>` values to produce a value or panic with -this definition: +fn main() { + let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; -``` -impl<T> Option<T> { - pub fn unwrap(self) -> T { - match self { - Some(val) => val, - None => panic!( - "called `Option::unwrap()` on a `None` value" - ), + match p { + Point { x, y: 0 } => println!("On the x axis at {x}"), + Point { x: 0, y } => println!("On the y axis at {y}"), + Point { x, y } => { + println!("On neither axis: ({x}, {y})"); } } } ``` -In this code, the same thing happens as in the `match` in Listing 19-26: Rust -sees that `val` has the type `T` and `panic!` has the type `!`, so the result -of the overall `match` expression is `T`. This code works because `panic!` -doesn’t produce a value; it ends the program. In the `None` case, we won’t be -returning a value from `unwrap`, so this code is valid. +Listing 18-14: Destructuring and matching literal values in one pattern -One final expression that has the type `!` is a `loop`: +The first arm will match any point that lies on the `x` axis by specifying that +the `y` field matches if its value matches the literal `0`. The pattern still +creates an `x` variable that we can use in the code for this arm. -``` -print!("forever "); +Similarly, the second arm matches any point on the `y` axis by specifying that +the `x` field matches if its value is `0` and creates a variable `y` for the +value of the `y` field. The third arm doesn’t specify any literals, so it +matches any other `Point` and creates variables for both the `x` and `y` fields. -loop { - print!("and ever "); -} -``` +In this example, the value `p` matches the second arm by virtue of `x` +containing a `0`, so this code will print `On the y axis at 7`. -Here, the loop never ends, so `!` is the value of the expression. However, this -wouldn’t be true if we included a `break`, because the loop would terminate -when it got to the `break`. - -### Dynamically Sized Types and the Sized Trait - -Rust needs to know certain details about its types, such as how much space to -allocate for a value of a particular type. This leaves one corner of its type -system a little confusing at first: the concept of *dynamically sized types*. -Sometimes referred to as *DSTs* or *unsized types*, these types let us write -code using values whose size we can know only at runtime. - -Let’s dig into the details of a dynamically sized type called `str`, which -we’ve been using throughout the book. That’s right, not `&str`, but `str` on -its own, is a DST. We can’t know how long the string is until runtime, meaning -we can’t create a variable of type `str`, nor can we take an argument of type -`str`. Consider the following code, which does not work: - -``` -let s1: str = "Hello there!"; -let s2: str = "How's it going?"; -``` - -Rust needs to know how much memory to allocate for any value of a particular -type, and all values of a type must use the same amount of memory. If Rust -allowed us to write this code, these two `str` values would need to take up the -same amount of space. But they have different lengths: `s1` needs 12 bytes of -storage and `s2` needs 15. This is why it’s not possible to create a variable -holding a dynamically sized type. - -So what do we do? In this case, you already know the answer: we make the types -of `s1` and `s2` a `&str` rather than a `str`. Recall from “String Slices” on -page XX that the slice data structure just stores the starting position and the -length of the slice. So, although a `&T` is a single value that stores the -memory address of where the `T` is located, a `&str` is *two* values: the -address of the `str` and its length. As such, we can know the size of a `&str` -value at compile time: it’s twice the length of a `usize`. That is, we always -know the size of a `&str`, no matter how long the string it refers to is. In -general, this is the way in which dynamically sized types are used in Rust: -they have an extra bit of metadata that stores the size of the dynamic -information. The golden rule of dynamically sized types is that we must always -put values of dynamically sized types behind a pointer of some kind. - -We can combine `str` with all kinds of pointers: for example, `Box<str>` or -`Rc<str>`. In fact, you’ve seen this before but with a different dynamically -sized type: traits. Every trait is a dynamically sized type we can refer to by -using the name of the trait. In “Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of -Different Types” on page XX, we mentioned that to use traits as trait objects, -we must put them behind a pointer, such as `&dyn Trait` or `Box<dyn Trait>` -(`Rc<dyn Trait>` would work too). - -To work with DSTs, Rust provides the `Sized` trait to determine whether or not -a type’s size is known at compile time. This trait is automatically implemented -for everything whose size is known at compile time. In addition, Rust -implicitly adds a bound on `Sized` to every generic function. That is, a -generic function definition like this: - -``` -fn generic<T>(t: T) { - --snip-- -} -``` +Remember that a `match` expression stops checking arms once it has found the +first matching pattern, so even though `Point { x: 0, y: 0}` is on the `x` axis +and the `y` axis, this code would only print `On the x axis at 0`. + +#### Destructuring Enums + +We’ve destructured enums in this book (for example, Listing 6-5), but we +haven’t yet explicitly discussed that the pattern to destructure an enum +corresponds to the way the data stored within the enum is defined. As an +example, in Listing 18-15 we use the `Message` enum from Listing 6-2 and write +a `match` with patterns that will destructure each inner value. -is actually treated as though we had written this: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn generic<T: Sized>(t: T) { - --snip-- +enum Message { + Quit, + Move { x: i32, y: i32 }, + Write(String), + ChangeColor(i32, i32, i32), } -``` -By default, generic functions will work only on types that have a known size at -compile time. However, you can use the following special syntax to relax this -restriction: +fn main() { + 1 let msg = Message::ChangeColor(0, 160, 255); -``` -fn generic<T: ?Sized>(t: &T) { - --snip-- + match msg { + 2 Message::Quit => { + println!( + "The Quit variant has no data to destructure." + ); + } + 3 Message::Move { x, y } => { + println!( + "Move in the x dir {x}, in the y dir {y}" + ); + } + 4 Message::Write(text) => { + println!("Text message: {text}"); + } + 5 Message::ChangeColor(r, g, b) => println!( + "Change color to red {r}, green {g}, and blue {b}" + ), + } } ``` -A trait bound on `?Sized` means “`T` may or may not be `Sized`” and this -notation overrides the default that generic types must have a known size at -compile time. The `?Trait` syntax with this meaning is only available for -`Sized`, not any other traits. - -Also note that we switched the type of the `t` parameter from `T` to `&T`. -Because the type might not be `Sized`, we need to use it behind some kind of -pointer. In this case, we’ve chosen a reference. +Listing 18-15: Destructuring enum variants that hold different kinds of values -Next, we’ll talk about functions and closures! +This code will print `Change color to red 0, green 160, and blue 255`. Try +changing the value of `msg` [1] to see the code from the other arms run. -## Advanced Functions and Closures +For enum variants without any data, like `Message::Quit` [2], we can’t +destructure the value any further. We can only match on the literal +`Message::Quit` value, and no variables are in that pattern. -This section explores some advanced features related to functions and closures, -including function pointers and returning closures. +For struct-like enum variants, such as `Message::Move` [3], we can use a +pattern similar to the pattern we specify to match structs. After the variant +name, we place curly brackets and then list the fields with variables so we +break apart the pieces to use in the code for this arm. Here we use the +shorthand form as we did in Listing 18-13. -### Function Pointers +For tuple-like enum variants, like `Message::Write` that holds a tuple with one +element [4] and `Message::ChangeColor` that holds a tuple with three elements +[5], the pattern is similar to the pattern we specify to match tuples. The +number of variables in the pattern must match the number of elements in the +variant we’re matching. -We’ve talked about how to pass closures to functions; you can also pass regular -functions to functions! This technique is useful when you want to pass a -function you’ve already defined rather than defining a new closure. Functions -coerce to the type `fn` (with a lowercase *f*), not to be confused with the -`Fn` closure trait. The `fn` type is called a *function pointer*. Passing -functions with function pointers will allow you to use functions as arguments -to other functions. +#### Destructuring Nested Structs and Enums -The syntax for specifying that a parameter is a function pointer is similar to -that of closures, as shown in Listing 19-27, where we’ve defined a function -`add_one` that adds 1 to its parameter. The function `do_twice` takes two -parameters: a function pointer to any function that takes an `i32` parameter -and returns an `i32`, and one `i32 value`. The `do_twice` function calls the -function `f` twice, passing it the `arg` value, then adds the two function call -results together. The `main` function calls `do_twice` with the arguments -`add_one` and `5`. +So far, our examples have all been matching structs or enums one level deep, +but matching can work on nested items too! For example, we can refactor the +code in Listing 18-15 to support RGB and HSV colors in the `ChangeColor` +message, as shown in Listing 18-16. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn add_one(x: i32) -> i32 { - x + 1 +enum Color { + Rgb(i32, i32, i32), + Hsv(i32, i32, i32), } -fn do_twice(f: fn(i32) -> i32, arg: i32) -> i32 { - f(arg) + f(arg) +enum Message { + Quit, + Move { x: i32, y: i32 }, + Write(String), + ChangeColor(Color), } fn main() { - let answer = do_twice(add_one, 5); - - println!("The answer is: {answer}"); + let msg = Message::ChangeColor(Color::Hsv(0, 160, 255)); + + match msg { + Message::ChangeColor(Color::Rgb(r, g, b)) => println!( + "Change color to red {r}, green {g}, and blue {b}" + ), + Message::ChangeColor(Color::Hsv(h, s, v)) => println!( + "Change color to hue {h}, saturation {s}, value {v}" + ), + _ => (), + } } ``` -Listing 19-27: Using the `fn` type to accept a function pointer as an argument - -This code prints `The answer is: 12`. We specify that the parameter `f` in -`do_twice` is an `fn` that takes one parameter of type `i32` and returns an -`i32`. We can then call `f` in the body of `do_twice`. In `main`, we can pass -the function name `add_one` as the first argument to `do_twice`. +Listing 18-16: Matching on nested enums -Unlike closures, `fn` is a type rather than a trait, so we specify `fn` as the -parameter type directly rather than declaring a generic type parameter with one -of the `Fn` traits as a trait bound. +The pattern of the first arm in the `match` expression matches a +`Message::ChangeColor` enum variant that contains a `Color::Rgb` variant; then +the pattern binds to the three inner `i32` values. The pattern of the second +arm also matches a `Message::ChangeColor` enum variant, but the inner enum +matches `Color::Hsv` instead. We can specify these complex conditions in one +`match` expression, even though two enums are involved. -Function pointers implement all three of the closure traits (`Fn`, `FnMut`, and -`FnOnce`), meaning you can always pass a function pointer as an argument for a -function that expects a closure. It’s best to write functions using a generic -type and one of the closure traits so your functions can accept either -functions or closures. +#### Destructuring Structs and Tuples -That said, one example of where you would want to only accept `fn` and not -closures is when interfacing with external code that doesn’t have closures: C -functions can accept functions as arguments, but C doesn’t have closures. - -As an example of where you could use either a closure defined inline or a named -function, let’s look at a use of the `map` method provided by the `Iterator` -trait in the standard library. To use the `map` function to turn a vector of -numbers into a vector of strings, we could use a closure, like this: +We can mix, match, and nest destructuring patterns in even more complex ways. +The following example shows a complicated destructure where we nest structs and +tuples inside a tuple and destructure all the primitive values out: ``` -let list_of_numbers = vec![1, 2, 3]; -let list_of_strings: Vec<String> = list_of_numbers - .iter() - .map(|i| i.to_string()) - .collect(); +let ((feet, inches), Point { x, y }) = + ((3, 10), Point { x: 3, y: -10 }); ``` -Or we could name a function as the argument to `map` instead of the closure, -like this: +This code lets us break complex types into their component parts so we can use +the values we’re interested in separately. -``` -let list_of_numbers = vec![1, 2, 3]; -let list_of_strings: Vec<String> = list_of_numbers - .iter() - .map(ToString::to_string) - .collect(); -``` +Destructuring with patterns is a convenient way to use pieces of values, such +as the value from each field in a struct, separately from each other. + +### Ignoring Values in a Pattern -Note that we must use the fully qualified syntax that we talked about in -“Advanced Traits” on page XX because there are multiple functions available -named `to_string`. +You’ve seen that it’s sometimes useful to ignore values in a pattern, such as +in the last arm of a `match`, to get a catchall that doesn’t actually do +anything but does account for all remaining possible values. There are a few +ways to ignore entire values or parts of values in a pattern: using the `_` +pattern (which you’ve seen), using the `_` pattern within another pattern, +using a name that starts with an underscore, or using `..` to ignore remaining +parts of a value. Let’s explore how and why to use each of these patterns. -Here, we’re using the `to_string` function defined in the `ToString` trait, -which the standard library has implemented for any type that implements -`Display`. +#### An Entire Value with _ -Recall from “Enum Values” on page XX that the name of each enum variant that we -define also becomes an initializer function. We can use these initializer -functions as function pointers that implement the closure traits, which means -we can specify the initializer functions as arguments for methods that take -closures, like so: +We’ve used the underscore as a wildcard pattern that will match any value but +not bind to the value. This is especially useful as the last arm in a `match` +expression, but we can also use it in any pattern, including function +parameters, as shown in Listing 18-17. + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -enum Status { - Value(u32), - Stop, +fn foo(_: i32, y: i32) { + println!("This code only uses the y parameter: {y}"); } -let list_of_statuses: Vec<Status> = (0u32..20) - .map(Status::Value) - .collect(); +fn main() { + foo(3, 4); +} ``` -Here, we create `Status::Value` instances using each `u32` value in the range -that `map` is called on by using the initializer function of `Status::Value`. -Some people prefer this style and some people prefer to use closures. They -compile to the same code, so use whichever style is clearer to you. +Listing 18-17: Using `_` in a function signature -### Returning Closures +This code will completely ignore the value `3` passed as the first argument, +and will print `This code only uses the y parameter: 4`. -Closures are represented by traits, which means you can’t return closures -directly. In most cases where you might want to return a trait, you can instead -use the concrete type that implements the trait as the return value of the -function. However, you can’t do that with closures because they don’t have a -concrete type that is returnable; you’re not allowed to use the function -pointer `fn` as a return type, for example. +In most cases when you no longer need a particular function parameter, you +would change the signature so it doesn’t include the unused parameter. Ignoring +a function parameter can be especially useful in cases when, for example, +you’re implementing a trait when you need a certain type signature but the +function body in your implementation doesn’t need one of the parameters. You +then avoid getting a compiler warning about unused function parameters, as you +would if you used a name instead. -The following code tries to return a closure directly, but it won’t compile: +#### Parts of a Value with a Nested _ -``` -fn returns_closure() -> dyn Fn(i32) -> i32 { - |x| x + 1 -} -``` +We can also use `_` inside another pattern to ignore just part of a value, for +example, when we want to test for only part of a value but have no use for the +other parts in the corresponding code we want to run. Listing 18-18 shows code +responsible for managing a setting’s value. The business requirements are that +the user should not be allowed to overwrite an existing customization of a +setting but can unset the setting and give it a value if it is currently unset. -The compiler error is as follows: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -error[E0746]: return type cannot have an unboxed trait object - --> src/lib.rs:1:25 - | -1 | fn returns_closure() -> dyn Fn(i32) -> i32 { - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ doesn't have a size known at -compile-time - | - = note: for information on `impl Trait`, see -<https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch10-02-traits.html#returning-types-that- -implement-traits> -help: use `impl Fn(i32) -> i32` as the return type, as all return paths are of -type `[closure@src/lib.rs:2:5: 2:14]`, which implements `Fn(i32) -> i32` - | -1 | fn returns_closure() -> impl Fn(i32) -> i32 { - | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -``` +let mut setting_value = Some(5); +let new_setting_value = Some(10); -The error references the `Sized` trait again! Rust doesn’t know how much space -it will need to store the closure. We saw a solution to this problem earlier. -We can use a trait object: - -``` -fn returns_closure() -> Box<dyn Fn(i32) -> i32> { - Box::new(|x| x + 1) +match (setting_value, new_setting_value) { + (Some(_), Some(_)) => { + println!("Can't overwrite an existing customized value"); + } + _ => { + setting_value = new_setting_value; + } } -``` - -This code will compile just fine. For more about trait objects, refer to “Using -Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types” on page XX. -Next, let’s look at macros! - -## Macros +println!("setting is {:?}", setting_value); +``` -We’ve used macros like `println!` throughout this book, but we haven’t fully -explored what a macro is and how it works. The term *macro* refers to a family -of features in Rust: *declarative* macros with `macro_rules!` and three kinds -of *procedural* macros: +Listing 18-18: Using an underscore within patterns that match `Some` variants +when we don’t need to use the value inside the `Some` -* Custom `#[derive]` macros that specify code added with the `derive` attribute -used on structs and enums -* Attribute-like macros that define custom attributes usable on any item -* Function-like macros that look like function calls but operate on the tokens -specified as their argument +This code will print `Can't overwrite an existing customized value` and then +`setting is Some(5)`. In the first match arm, we don’t need to match on or use +the values inside either `Some` variant, but we do need to test for the case +when `setting_value` and `new_setting_value` are the `Some` variant. In that +case, we print the reason for not changing `setting_value`, and it doesn’t get +changed. -We’ll talk about each of these in turn, but first, let’s look at why we even -need macros when we already have functions. +In all other cases (if either `setting_value` or `new_setting_value` is `None`) +expressed by the `_` pattern in the second arm, we want to allow +`new_setting_value` to become `setting_value`. -### The Difference Between Macros and Functions +We can also use underscores in multiple places within one pattern to ignore +particular values. Listing 18-19 shows an example of ignoring the second and +fourth values in a tuple of five items. -Fundamentally, macros are a way of writing code that writes other code, which -is known as *metaprogramming*. In Appendix C, we discuss the `derive` -attribute, which generates an implementation of various traits for you. We’ve -also used the `println!` and `vec!` macros throughout the book. All of these -macros *expand* to produce more code than the code you’ve written manually. +Filename: src/main.rs -Metaprogramming is useful for reducing the amount of code you have to write and -maintain, which is also one of the roles of functions. However, macros have -some additional powers that functions don’t have. +``` +let numbers = (2, 4, 8, 16, 32); -A function signature must declare the number and type of parameters the -function has. Macros, on the other hand, can take a variable number of -parameters: we can call `println!("hello")` with one argument or -`println!("hello {}", name)` with two arguments. Also, macros are expanded -before the compiler interprets the meaning of the code, so a macro can, for -example, implement a trait on a given type. A function can’t, because it gets -called at runtime and a trait needs to be implemented at compile time. +match numbers { + (first, _, third, _, fifth) => { + println!("Some numbers: {first}, {third}, {fifth}"); + } +} +``` -The downside to implementing a macro instead of a function is that macro -definitions are more complex than function definitions because you’re writing -Rust code that writes Rust code. Due to this indirection, macro definitions are -generally more difficult to read, understand, and maintain than function -definitions. +Listing 18-19: Ignoring multiple parts of a tuple -Another important difference between macros and functions is that you must -define macros or bring them into scope *before* you call them in a file, as -opposed to functions you can define anywhere and call anywhere. +This code will print `Some numbers: 2, 8, 32`, and the values `4` and `16` will +be ignored. -### Declarative Macros with macro_rules! for General Metaprogramming +#### An Unused Variable by Starting Its Name with _ -The most widely used form of macros in Rust is the *declarative macro*. These -are also sometimes referred to as “macros by example,” “`macro_rules!` macros,” -or just plain “macros.” At their core, declarative macros allow you to write -something similar to a Rust `match` expression. As discussed in Chapter 6, -`match` expressions are control structures that take an expression, compare the -resultant value of the expression to patterns, and then run the code associated -with the matching pattern. Macros also compare a value to patterns that are -associated with particular code: in this situation, the value is the literal -Rust source code passed to the macro; the patterns are compared with the -structure of that source code; and the code associated with each pattern, when -matched, replaces the code passed to the macro. This all happens during -compilation. +If you create a variable but don’t use it anywhere, Rust will usually issue a +warning because an unused variable could be a bug. However, sometimes it’s +useful to be able to create a variable you won’t use yet, such as when you’re +prototyping or just starting a project. In this situation, you can tell Rust +not to warn you about the unused variable by starting the name of the variable +with an underscore. In Listing 18-20, we create two unused variables, but when +we compile this code, we should only get a warning about one of them. -To define a macro, you use the `macro_rules!` construct. Let’s explore how to -use `macro_rules!` by looking at how the `vec!` macro is defined. Chapter 8 -covered how we can use the `vec!` macro to create a new vector with particular -values. For example, the following macro creates a new vector containing three -integers: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -let v: Vec<u32> = vec![1, 2, 3]; +fn main() { + let _x = 5; + let y = 10; +} ``` -We could also use the `vec!` macro to make a vector of two integers or a vector -of five string slices. We wouldn’t be able to use a function to do the same -because we wouldn’t know the number or type of values up front. +Listing 18-20: Starting a variable name with an underscore to avoid getting +unused variable warnings -Listing 19-28 shows a slightly simplified definition of the `vec!` macro. +Here, we get a warning about not using the variable `y`, but we don’t get a +warning about not using `_x`. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Note that there is a subtle difference between using only `_` and using a name +that starts with an underscore. The syntax `_x` still binds the value to the +variable, whereas `_` doesn’t bind at all. To show a case where this +distinction matters, Listing 18-21 will provide us with an error. -``` -1 #[macro_export] -2 macro_rules! vec { - 3 ( $( $x:expr ),* ) => { - { - let mut temp_vec = Vec::new(); - 4 $( - 5 temp_vec.push(6 $x); - )* - 7 temp_vec - } - }; -} -``` +Filename: src/main.rs -Listing 19-28: A simplified version of the `vec!` macro definition - -> Note: The actual definition of the `vec!` macro in the standard library -includes code to pre-allocate the correct amount of memory up front. That code -is an optimization that we don’t include here, to make the example simpler. - -The `#[macro_export]` annotation [1] indicates that this macro should be made -available whenever the crate in which the macro is defined is brought into -scope. Without this annotation, the macro can’t be brought into scope. - -We then start the macro definition with `macro_rules!` and the name of the -macro we’re defining *without* the exclamation mark [2]. The name, in this case -`vec`, is followed by curly brackets denoting the body of the macro definition. - -The structure in the `vec!` body is similar to the structure of a `match` -expression. Here we have one arm with the pattern `( $( $x:expr ),* )`, -followed by `=>` and the block of code associated with this pattern [3]. If the -pattern matches, the associated block of code will be emitted. Given that this -is the only pattern in this macro, there is only one valid way to match; any -other pattern will result in an error. More complex macros will have more than -one arm. - -Valid pattern syntax in macro definitions is different from the pattern syntax -covered in Chapter 18 because macro patterns are matched against Rust code -structure rather than values. Let’s walk through what the pattern pieces in -Listing 19-28 mean; for the full macro pattern syntax, see the Rust Reference -at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/macros-by-example.html*. - -First we use a set of parentheses to encompass the whole pattern. We use a -dollar sign (`$`) to declare a variable in the macro system that will contain -the Rust code matching the pattern. The dollar sign makes it clear this is a -macro variable as opposed to a regular Rust variable. Next comes a set of -parentheses that captures values that match the pattern within the parentheses -for use in the replacement code. Within `$()` is `$x:expr`, which matches any -Rust expression and gives the expression the name `$x`. - -The comma following `$()` indicates that a literal comma separator character -could optionally appear after the code that matches the code in `$()`. The `*` -specifies that the pattern matches zero or more of whatever precedes the `*`. - -When we call this macro with `vec![1, 2, 3];`, the `$x` pattern matches three -times with the three expressions `1`, `2`, and `3`. - -Now let’s look at the pattern in the body of the code associated with this arm: -`temp_vec.push()` [5] within `$()* at [4] and [7] is generated for each part -that matches `$()` in the pattern zero or more times depending on how many -times the pattern matches. The `$x` [6] is replaced with each expression -matched. When we call this macro with `vec![1, 2, 3];`, the code generated that -replaces this macro call will be the following: - -``` -{ - let mut temp_vec = Vec::new(); - temp_vec.push(1); - temp_vec.push(2); - temp_vec.push(3); - temp_vec -} ``` +let s = Some(String::from("Hello!")); -We’ve defined a macro that can take any number of arguments of any type and can -generate code to create a vector containing the specified elements. - -To learn more about how to write macros, consult the online documentation or -other resources, such as “The Little Book of Rust Macros” at -*https://veykril.github.io/tlborm* started by Daniel Keep and continued by -Lukas Wirth. +if let Some(_s) = s { + println!("found a string"); +} -### Procedural Macros for Generating Code from Attributes +println!("{:?}", s); +``` -The second form of macros is the procedural macro, which acts more like a -function (and is a type of procedure). *Procedural macros* accept some code as -an input, operate on that code, and produce some code as an output rather than -matching against patterns and replacing the code with other code as declarative -macros do. The three kinds of procedural macros are custom `derive`, -attribute-like, and function-like, and all work in a similar fashion. +Listing 18-21: An unused variable starting with an underscore still binds the +value, which might take ownership of the value. -When creating procedural macros, the definitions must reside in their own crate -with a special crate type. This is for complex technical reasons that we hope -to eliminate in the future. In Listing 19-29, we show how to define a -procedural macro, where `some_attribute` is a placeholder for using a specific -macro variety. +We’ll receive an error because the `s` value will still be moved into `_s`, +which prevents us from using `s` again. However, using the underscore by itself +doesn’t ever bind to the value. Listing 18-22 will compile without any errors +because `s` doesn’t get moved into `_`. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use proc_macro::TokenStream; +let s = Some(String::from("Hello!")); -#[some_attribute] -pub fn some_name(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { +if let Some(_) = s { + println!("found a string"); } -``` -Listing 19-29: An example of defining a procedural macro +println!("{:?}", s); +``` -The function that defines a procedural macro takes a `TokenStream` as an input -and produces a `TokenStream` as an output. The `TokenStream` type is defined by -the `proc_macro` crate that is included with Rust and represents a sequence of -tokens. This is the core of the macro: the source code that the macro is -operating on makes up the input `TokenStream`, and the code the macro produces -is the output `TokenStream`. The function also has an attribute attached to it -that specifies which kind of procedural macro we’re creating. We can have -multiple kinds of procedural macros in the same crate. +Listing 18-22: Using an underscore does not bind the value. -Let’s look at the different kinds of procedural macros. We’ll start with a -custom `derive` macro and then explain the small dissimilarities that make the -other forms different. +This code works just fine because we never bind `s` to anything; it isn’t moved. -### How to Write a Custom derive Macro +#### Remaining Parts of a Value with .. -Let’s create a crate named `hello_macro` that defines a trait named -`HelloMacro` with one associated function named `hello_macro`. Rather than -making our users implement the `HelloMacro` trait for each of their types, -we’ll provide a procedural macro so users can annotate their type with -`#[derive(HelloMacro)]` to get a default implementation of the `hello_macro` -function. The default implementation will print `Hello, Macro! My name is` -TypeName`!` where TypeName is the name of the type on which this trait has been -defined. In other words, we’ll write a crate that enables another programmer to -write code like Listing 19-30 using our crate. +With values that have many parts, we can use the `..` syntax to use specific +parts and ignore the rest, avoiding the need to list underscores for each +ignored value. The `..` pattern ignores any parts of a value that we haven’t +explicitly matched in the rest of the pattern. In Listing 18-23, we have a +`Point` struct that holds a coordinate in three-dimensional space. In the +`match` expression, we want to operate only on the `x` coordinate and ignore +the values in the `y` and `z` fields. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use hello_macro::HelloMacro; -use hello_macro_derive::HelloMacro; +struct Point { + x: i32, + y: i32, + z: i32, +} -#[derive(HelloMacro)] -struct Pancakes; +let origin = Point { x: 0, y: 0, z: 0 }; -fn main() { - Pancakes::hello_macro(); +match origin { + Point { x, .. } => println!("x is {x}"), } ``` -Listing 19-30: The code a user of our crate will be able to write when using -our procedural macro +Listing 18-23: Ignoring all fields of a `Point` except for `x` by using `..` -This code will print `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` when we’re done. The -first step is to make a new library crate, like this: +We list the `x` value and then just include the `..` pattern. This is quicker +than having to list `y: _` and `z: _`, particularly when we’re working with +structs that have lots of fields in situations where only one or two fields are +relevant. -``` -$ cargo new hello_macro --lib -``` +The syntax `..` will expand to as many values as it needs to be. Listing 18-24 +shows how to use `..` with a tuple. -Next, we’ll define the `HelloMacro` trait and its associated function: - -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -pub trait HelloMacro { - fn hello_macro(); +fn main() { + let numbers = (2, 4, 8, 16, 32); + + match numbers { + (first, .., last) => { + println!("Some numbers: {first}, {last}"); + } + } } ``` -We have a trait and its function. At this point, our crate user could implement -the trait to achieve the desired functionality, like so: +Listing 18-24: Matching only the first and last values in a tuple and ignoring +all other values -``` -use hello_macro::HelloMacro; +In this code, the first and last values are matched with `first` and `last`. +The `..` will match and ignore everything in the middle. -struct Pancakes; +However, using `..` must be unambiguous. If it is unclear which values are +intended for matching and which should be ignored, Rust will give us an error. +Listing 18-25 shows an example of using `..` ambiguously, so it will not +compile. -impl HelloMacro for Pancakes { - fn hello_macro() { - println!("Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!"); - } -} +Filename: src/main.rs +``` fn main() { - Pancakes::hello_macro(); + let numbers = (2, 4, 8, 16, 32); + + match numbers { + (.., second, ..) => { + println!("Some numbers: {second}"); + }, + } } ``` -However, they would need to write the implementation block for each type they -wanted to use with `hello_macro`; we want to spare them from having to do this -work. - -Additionally, we can’t yet provide the `hello_macro` function with default -implementation that will print the name of the type the trait is implemented -on: Rust doesn’t have reflection capabilities, so it can’t look up the type’s -name at runtime. We need a macro to generate code at compile time. +Listing 18-25: An attempt to use `..` in an ambiguous way -The next step is to define the procedural macro. At the time of this writing, -procedural macros need to be in their own crate. Eventually, this restriction -might be lifted. The convention for structuring crates and macro crates is as -follows: for a crate named foo, a custom `derive` procedural macro crate is -called foo`_derive`. Let’s start a new crate called `hello_macro_derive` inside -our `hello_macro` project: +When we compile this example, we get this error: ``` -$ cargo new hello_macro_derive --lib +error: `..` can only be used once per tuple pattern + --> src/main.rs:5:22 + | +5 | (.., second, ..) => { + | -- ^^ can only be used once per tuple pattern + | | + | previously used here ``` -Our two crates are tightly related, so we create the procedural macro crate -within the directory of our `hello_macro` crate. If we change the trait -definition in `hello_macro`, we’ll have to change the implementation of the -procedural macro in `hello_macro_derive` as well. The two crates will need to -be published separately, and programmers using these crates will need to add -both as dependencies and bring them both into scope. We could instead have the -`hello_macro` crate use `hello_macro_derive` as a dependency and re-export the -procedural macro code. However, the way we’ve structured the project makes it -possible for programmers to use `hello_macro` even if they don’t want the -`derive` functionality. +It’s impossible for Rust to determine how many values in the tuple to ignore +before matching a value with `second` and then how many further values to +ignore thereafter. This code could mean that we want to ignore `2`, bind +`second` to `4`, and then ignore `8`, `16`, and `32`; or that we want to ignore +`2` and `4`, bind `second` to `8`, and then ignore `16` and `32`; and so forth. +The variable name `second` doesn’t mean anything special to Rust, so we get a +compiler error because using `..` in two places like this is ambiguous. + +### Extra Conditionals with Match Guards + +A *match guard* is an additional `if` condition, specified after the pattern in +a `match` arm, that must also match for that arm to be chosen. Match guards are +useful for expressing more complex ideas than a pattern alone allows. -We need to declare the `hello_macro_derive` crate as a procedural macro crate. -We’ll also need functionality from the `syn` and `quote` crates, as you’ll see -in a moment, so we need to add them as dependencies. Add the following to the -*Cargo.toml* file for `hello_macro_derive`: +The condition can use variables created in the pattern. Listing 18-26 shows a +`match` where the first arm has the pattern `Some(x)` and also has a match +guard of `if x % 2 == 0` (which will be `true` if the number is even). -Filename: hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -[lib] -proc-macro = true +let num = Some(4); -[dependencies] -syn = "1.0" -quote = "1.0" +match num { + Some(x) if x % 2 == 0 => println!("The number {x} is even"), + Some(x) => println!("The number {x} is odd"), + None => (), +} ``` -To start defining the procedural macro, place the code in Listing 19-31 into -your *src/lib.rs* file for the `hello_macro_derive` crate. Note that this code -won’t compile until we add a definition for the `impl_hello_macro` function. +Listing 18-26: Adding a match guard to a pattern -Filename: hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs +This example will print `The number 4 is even`. When `num` is compared to the +pattern in the first arm, it matches because `Some(4)` matches `Some(x)`. Then +the match guard checks whether the remainder of dividing `x` by 2 is equal to +0, and because it is, the first arm is selected. -``` -use proc_macro::TokenStream; -use quote::quote; -use syn; +If `num` had been `Some(5)` instead, the match guard in the first arm would +have been `false` because the remainder of 5 divided by 2 is 1, which is not +equal to 0. Rust would then go to the second arm, which would match because the +second arm doesn’t have a match guard and therefore matches any `Some` variant. -#[proc_macro_derive(HelloMacro)] -pub fn hello_macro_derive(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { - // Construct a representation of Rust code as a syntax tree - // that we can manipulate - let ast = syn::parse(input).unwrap(); +There is no way to express the `if x % 2 == 0` condition within a pattern, so +the match guard gives us the ability to express this logic. The downside of +this additional expressiveness is that the compiler doesn’t try to check for +exhaustiveness when match guard expressions are involved. - // Build the trait implementation - impl_hello_macro(&ast) -} -``` +In Listing 18-11, we mentioned that we could use match guards to solve our +pattern-shadowing problem. Recall that we created a new variable inside the +pattern in the `match` expression instead of using the variable outside the +`match`. That new variable meant we couldn’t test against the value of the +outer variable. Listing 18-27 shows how we can use a match guard to fix this +problem. -Listing 19-31: Code that most procedural macro crates will require in order to -process Rust code - -Notice that we’ve split the code into the `hello_macro_derive` function, which -is responsible for parsing the `TokenStream`, and the `impl_hello_macro` -function, which is responsible for transforming the syntax tree: this makes -writing a procedural macro more convenient. The code in the outer function -(`hello_macro_derive` in this case) will be the same for almost every -procedural macro crate you see or create. The code you specify in the body of -the inner function (`impl_hello_macro` in this case) will be different -depending on your procedural macro’s purpose. - -We’ve introduced three new crates: `proc_macro`, `syn` (available from -*https://crates.io/crates/syn*), and `quote` (available from -*https://crates.io/crates/quote*). The `proc_macro` crate comes with Rust, so -we didn’t need to add that to the dependencies in *Cargo.toml*. The -`proc_macro` crate is the compiler’s API that allows us to read and manipulate -Rust code from our code. - -The `syn` crate parses Rust code from a string into a data structure that we -can perform operations on. The `quote` crate turns `syn` data structures back -into Rust code. These crates make it much simpler to parse any sort of Rust -code we might want to handle: writing a full parser for Rust code is no simple -task. - -The `hello_macro_derive` function will be called when a user of our library -specifies `#[derive(HelloMacro)]` on a type. This is possible because we’ve -annotated the `hello_macro_derive` function here with `proc_macro_derive` and -specified the name `HelloMacro`, which matches our trait name; this is the -convention most procedural macros follow. - -The `hello_macro_derive` function first converts the `input` from a -`TokenStream` to a data structure that we can then interpret and perform -operations on. This is where `syn` comes into play. The `parse` function in -`syn` takes a `TokenStream` and returns a `DeriveInput` struct representing the -parsed Rust code. Listing 19-32 shows the relevant parts of the `DeriveInput` -struct we get from parsing the `struct Pancakes;` string. - -``` -DeriveInput { - --snip-- - - ident: Ident { - ident: "Pancakes", - span: #0 bytes(95..103) - }, - data: Struct( - DataStruct { - struct_token: Struct, - fields: Unit, - semi_token: Some( - Semi - ) - } - ) -} -``` +Filename: src/main.rs -Listing 19-32: The `DeriveInput` instance we get when parsing the code that has -the macro’s attribute in Listing 19-30 - -The fields of this struct show that the Rust code we’ve parsed is a unit struct -with the `ident` (*identifier*, meaning the name) of `Pancakes`. There are more -fields on this struct for describing all sorts of Rust code; check the `syn` -documentation for `DeriveInput` at -*https://docs.rs/syn/1.0/syn/struct.DeriveInput.html* for more information. - -Soon we’ll define the `impl_hello_macro` function, which is where we’ll build -the new Rust code we want to include. But before we do, note that the output -for our `derive` macro is also a `TokenStream`. The returned `TokenStream` is -added to the code that our crate users write, so when they compile their crate, -they’ll get the extra functionality that we provide in the modified -`TokenStream`. - -You might have noticed that we’re calling `unwrap` to cause the -`hello_macro_derive` function to panic if the call to the `syn::parse` function -fails here. It’s necessary for our procedural macro to panic on errors because -`proc_macro_derive` functions must return `TokenStream` rather than `Result` to -conform to the procedural macro API. We’ve simplified this example by using -`unwrap`; in production code, you should provide more specific error messages -about what went wrong by using `panic!` or `expect`. - -Now that we have the code to turn the annotated Rust code from a `TokenStream` -into a `DeriveInput` instance, let’s generate the code that implements the -`HelloMacro` trait on the annotated type, as shown in Listing 19-33. - -Filename: hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs - -``` -fn impl_hello_macro(ast: &syn::DeriveInput) -> TokenStream { - let name = &ast.ident; - let gen = quote! { - impl HelloMacro for #name { - fn hello_macro() { - println!( - "Hello, Macro! My name is {}!", - stringify!(#name) - ); - } - } - }; - gen.into() -} ``` +fn main() { + let x = Some(5); + let y = 10; -Listing 19-33: Implementing the `HelloMacro` trait using the parsed Rust code + match x { + Some(50) => println!("Got 50"), + Some(n) if n == y => println!("Matched, n = {n}"), + _ => println!("Default case, x = {:?}", x), + } -We get an `Ident` struct instance containing the name (identifier) of the -annotated type using `ast.ident`. The struct in Listing 19-32 shows that when -we run the `impl_hello_macro` function on the code in Listing 19-30, the -`ident` we get will have the `ident` field with a value of `"Pancakes"`. Thus -the `name` variable in Listing 19-33 will contain an `Ident` struct instance -that, when printed, will be the string `"Pancakes"`, the name of the struct in -Listing 19-30. + println!("at the end: x = {:?}, y = {y}", x); +} +``` -The `quote!` macro lets us define the Rust code that we want to return. The -compiler expects something different to the direct result of the `quote!` -macro’s execution, so we need to convert it to a `TokenStream`. We do this by -calling the `into` method, which consumes this intermediate representation and -returns a value of the required `TokenStream` type. +Listing 18-27: Using a match guard to test for equality with an outer variable -The `quote!` macro also provides some very cool templating mechanics: we can -enter `#name`, and `quote!` will replace it with the value in the variable -`name`. You can even do some repetition similar to the way regular macros work. -Check out the `quote` crate’s docs at *https://docs.rs/quote* for a thorough -introduction. +This code will now print `Default case, x = Some(5)`. The pattern in the second +match arm doesn’t introduce a new variable `y` that would shadow the outer `y`, +meaning we can use the outer `y` in the match guard. Instead of specifying the +pattern as `Some(y)`, which would have shadowed the outer `y`, we specify +`Some(n)`. This creates a new variable `n` that doesn’t shadow anything because +there is no `n` variable outside the `match`. -We want our procedural macro to generate an implementation of our `HelloMacro` -trait for the type the user annotated, which we can get by using `#name`. The -trait implementation has the one function `hello_macro`, whose body contains -the functionality we want to provide: printing `Hello, Macro! My name is` and -then the name of the annotated type. +The match guard `if n == y` is not a pattern and therefore doesn’t introduce +new variables. This `y` *is* the outer `y` rather than a new shadowed `y`, and +we can look for a value that has the same value as the outer `y` by comparing +`n` to `y`. -The `stringify!` macro used here is built into Rust. It takes a Rust -expression, such as `1 + 2`, and at compile time turns the expression into a -string literal, such as `"1 + 2"`. This is different from `format!` or -`println!`, macros which evaluate the expression and then turn the result into -a `String`. There is a possibility that the `#name` input might be an -expression to print literally, so we use `stringify!`. Using `stringify!` also -saves an allocation by converting `#name` to a string literal at compile time. +You can also use the *or* operator `|` in a match guard to specify multiple +patterns; the match guard condition will apply to all the patterns. Listing +18-28 shows the precedence when combining a pattern that uses `|` with a match +guard. The important part of this example is that the `if y` match guard +applies to `4`, `5`, *and* `6`, even though it might look like `if y` only +applies to `6`. -At this point, `cargo build` should complete successfully in both `hello_macro` -and `hello_macro_derive`. Let’s hook up these crates to the code in Listing -19-30 to see the procedural macro in action! Create a new binary project in -your *projects* directory using `cargo new pancakes`. We need to add -`hello_macro` and `hello_macro_derive` as dependencies in the `pancakes` -crate’s *Cargo.toml*. If you’re publishing your versions of `hello_macro` and -`hello_macro_derive` to *https://crates.io*, they would be regular -dependencies; if not, you can specify them as `path` dependencies as follows: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -[dependencies] -hello_macro = { path = "../hello_macro" } -hello_macro_derive = { path = "../hello_macro/hello_macro_derive" } -``` +let x = 4; +let y = false; -Put the code in Listing 19-30 into *src/main.rs*, and run `cargo run`: it -should print `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` The implementation of the -`HelloMacro` trait from the procedural macro was included without the -`pancakes` crate needing to implement it; the `#[derive(HelloMacro)]` added the -trait implementation. - -Next, let’s explore how the other kinds of procedural macros differ from custom -`derive` macros. +match x { + 4 | 5 | 6 if y => println!("yes"), + _ => println!("no"), +} +``` -### Attribute-like Macros +Listing 18-28: Combining multiple patterns with a match guard -Attribute-like macros are similar to custom `derive` macros, but instead of -generating code for the `derive` attribute, they allow you to create new -attributes. They’re also more flexible: `derive` only works for structs and -enums; attributes can be applied to other items as well, such as functions. -Here’s an example of using an attribute-like macro. Say you have an attribute -named `route` that annotates functions when using a web application framework: +The match condition states that the arm only matches if the value of `x` is +equal to `4`, `5`, or `6` *and* if `y` is `true`. When this code runs, the +pattern of the first arm matches because `x` is `4`, but the match guard `if y` +is `false`, so the first arm is not chosen. The code moves on to the second +arm, which does match, and this program prints `no`. The reason is that the +`if` condition applies to the whole pattern `4 | 5 | 6`, not just to the last +value `6`. In other words, the precedence of a match guard in relation to a +pattern behaves like this: ``` -#[route(GET, "/")] -fn index() { +(4 | 5 | 6) if y => ... ``` -This `#[route]` attribute would be defined by the framework as a procedural -macro. The signature of the macro definition function would look like this: +rather than this: ``` -#[proc_macro_attribute] -pub fn route( - attr: TokenStream, - item: TokenStream -) -> TokenStream { +4 | 5 | (6 if y) => ... ``` -Here, we have two parameters of type `TokenStream`. The first is for the -contents of the attribute: the `GET, "/"` part. The second is the body of the -item the attribute is attached to: in this case, `fn index() {}` and the rest -of the function’s body. +After running the code, the precedence behavior is evident: if the match guard +were applied only to the final value in the list of values specified using the +`|` operator, the arm would have matched and the program would have printed +`yes`. -Other than that, attribute-like macros work the same way as custom `derive` -macros: you create a crate with the `proc-macro` crate type and implement a -function that generates the code you want! +### @ Bindings -### Function-like Macros +The *at* operator `@` lets us create a variable that holds a value at the same +time we’re testing that value for a pattern match. In Listing 18-29, we want to +test that a `Message::Hello` `id` field is within the range `3..=7`. We also +want to bind the value to the variable `id_variable` so we can use it in the +code associated with the arm. We could name this variable `id`, the same as the +field, but for this example we’ll use a different name. -Function-like macros define macros that look like function calls. Similarly to -`macro_rules!` macros, they’re more flexible than functions; for example, they -can take an unknown number of arguments. However, `macro_rules!` macros can -only be defined using the match-like syntax we discussed in “Declarative Macros -with macro_rules! for General Metaprogramming” on page XX. Function-like macros -take a `TokenStream` parameter, and their definition manipulates that -`TokenStream` using Rust code as the other two types of procedural macros do. -An example of a function-like macro is an `sql!` macro that might be called -like so: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -let sql = sql!(SELECT * FROM posts WHERE id=1); -``` +enum Message { + Hello { id: i32 }, +} -This macro would parse the SQL statement inside it and check that it’s -syntactically correct, which is much more complex processing than a -`macro_rules!` macro can do. The `sql!` macro would be defined like this: +let msg = Message::Hello { id: 5 }; +match msg { + Message::Hello { + id: id_variable @ 3..=7, + } => println!("Found an id in range: {id_variable}"), + Message::Hello { id: 10..=12 } => { + println!("Found an id in another range") + } + Message::Hello { id } => println!("Some other id: {id}"), +} ``` -#[proc_macro] -pub fn sql(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { -``` -This definition is similar to the custom `derive` macro’s signature: we receive -the tokens that are inside the parentheses and return the code we wanted to -generate. +Listing 18-29: Using `@` to bind to a value in a pattern while also testing it + +This example will print `Found an id in range: 5`. By specifying `id_variable +@` before the range `3..=7`, we’re capturing whatever value matched the range +while also testing that the value matched the range pattern. + +In the second arm, where we only have a range specified in the pattern, the +code associated with the arm doesn’t have a variable that contains the actual +value of the `id` field. The `id` field’s value could have been 10, 11, or 12, +but the code that goes with that pattern doesn’t know which it is. The pattern +code isn’t able to use the value from the `id` field because we haven’t saved +the `id` value in a variable. + +In the last arm, where we’ve specified a variable without a range, we do have +the value available to use in the arm’s code in a variable named `id`. The +reason is that we’ve used the struct field shorthand syntax. But we haven’t +applied any test to the value in the `id` field in this arm, as we did with the +first two arms: any value would match this pattern. + +Using `@` lets us test a value and save it in a variable within one pattern. ## Summary -Whew! Now you have some Rust features in your toolbox that you likely won’t use -often, but you’ll know they’re available in very particular circumstances. -We’ve introduced several complex topics so that when you encounter them in -error message suggestions or in other people’s code, you’ll be able to -recognize these concepts and syntax. Use this chapter as a reference to guide -you to solutions. +Rust’s patterns are very useful in distinguishing between different kinds of +data. When used in `match` expressions, Rust ensures your patterns cover every +possible value, or your program won’t compile. Patterns in `let` statements and +function parameters make those constructs more useful, enabling the +destructuring of values into smaller parts at the same time as assigning to +variables. We can create simple or complex patterns to suit our needs. -Next, we’ll put everything we’ve discussed throughout the book into practice -and do one more project! +Next, for the penultimate chapter of the book, we’ll look at some advanced +aspects of a variety of Rust’s features. diff --git a/nostarch/chapter20.md b/nostarch/chapter20.md index 9d4e22cd7..410e7eb62 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter20.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter20.md @@ -6,1989 +6,2291 @@ directory, so all fixes need to be made in `/src/`. [TOC] -# Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server +# Advanced Features + +By now, you’ve learned the most commonly used parts of the Rust programming +language. Before we do one more project, in Chapter 20, we’ll look at a few +aspects of the language you might run into every once in a while, but may not +use every day. You can use this chapter as a reference for when you encounter +any unknowns. The features covered here are useful in very specific situations. +Although you might not reach for them often, we want to make sure you have a +grasp of all the features Rust has to offer. + +In this chapter, we’ll cover: + +* Unsafe Rust: how to opt out of some of Rust’s guarantees and take +responsibility for manually upholding those guarantees +* Advanced traits: associated types, default type parameters, fully qualified +syntax, supertraits, and the newtype pattern in relation to traits +* Advanced types: more about the newtype pattern, type aliases, the never type, +and dynamically sized types +* Advanced functions and closures: function pointers and returning closures +* Macros: ways to define code that defines more code at compile time + +It’s a panoply of Rust features with something for everyone! Let’s dive in! + +## Unsafe Rust + +All the code we’ve discussed so far has had Rust’s memory safety guarantees +enforced at compile time. However, Rust has a second language hidden inside it +that doesn’t enforce these memory safety guarantees: it’s called *unsafe Rust* +and works just like regular Rust, but gives us extra superpowers. + +Unsafe Rust exists because, by nature, static analysis is conservative. When +the compiler tries to determine whether or not code upholds the guarantees, +it’s better for it to reject some valid programs than to accept some invalid +programs. Although the code *might* be okay, if the Rust compiler doesn’t have +enough information to be confident, it will reject the code. In these cases, +you can use unsafe code to tell the compiler, “Trust me, I know what I’m +doing.” Be warned, however, that you use unsafe Rust at your own risk: if you +use unsafe code incorrectly, problems can occur due to memory unsafety, such as +null pointer dereferencing. + +Another reason Rust has an unsafe alter ego is that the underlying computer +hardware is inherently unsafe. If Rust didn’t let you do unsafe operations, you +couldn’t do certain tasks. Rust needs to allow you to do low-level systems +programming, such as directly interacting with the operating system or even +writing your own operating system. Working with low-level systems programming +is one of the goals of the language. Let’s explore what we can do with unsafe +Rust and how to do it. + +### Unsafe Superpowers + +To switch to unsafe Rust, use the `unsafe` keyword and then start a new block +that holds the unsafe code. You can take five actions in unsafe Rust that you +can’t in safe Rust, which we call *unsafe superpowers*. Those superpowers +include the ability to: + +1. Dereference a raw pointer +1. Call an unsafe function or method +1. Access or modify a mutable static variable +1. Implement an unsafe trait +1. Access fields of `union`s + +It’s important to understand that `unsafe` doesn’t turn off the borrow checker +or disable any of Rust’s other safety checks: if you use a reference in unsafe +code, it will still be checked. The `unsafe` keyword only gives you access to +these five features that are then not checked by the compiler for memory +safety. You’ll still get some degree of safety inside an unsafe block. + +In addition, `unsafe` does not mean the code inside the block is necessarily +dangerous or that it will definitely have memory safety problems: the intent is +that as the programmer, you’ll ensure the code inside an `unsafe` block will +access memory in a valid way. + +People are fallible and mistakes will happen, but by requiring these five +unsafe operations to be inside blocks annotated with `unsafe`, you’ll know that +any errors related to memory safety must be within an `unsafe` block. Keep +`unsafe` blocks small; you’ll be thankful later when you investigate memory +bugs. + +To isolate unsafe code as much as possible, it’s best to enclose such code +within a safe abstraction and provide a safe API, which we’ll discuss later in +the chapter when we examine unsafe functions and methods. Parts of the standard +library are implemented as safe abstractions over unsafe code that has been +audited. Wrapping unsafe code in a safe abstraction prevents uses of `unsafe` +from leaking out into all the places that you or your users might want to use +the functionality implemented with `unsafe` code, because using a safe +abstraction is safe. + +Let’s look at each of the five unsafe superpowers in turn. We’ll also look at +some abstractions that provide a safe interface to unsafe code. + +### Dereferencing a Raw Pointer + +In “Dangling References” on page XX, we mentioned that the compiler ensures +references are always valid. Unsafe Rust has two new types called *raw +pointers* that are similar to references. As with references, raw pointers can +be immutable or mutable and are written as `*const T` and `*mut T`, +respectively. The asterisk isn’t the dereference operator; it’s part of the +type name. In the context of raw pointers, *immutable* means that the pointer +can’t be directly assigned to after being dereferenced. + +Different from references and smart pointers, raw pointers: + +* Are allowed to ignore the borrowing rules by having both immutable and +mutable pointers or multiple mutable pointers to the same location +* Aren’t guaranteed to point to valid memory +* Are allowed to be null +* Don’t implement any automatic cleanup -It’s been a long journey, but we’ve reached the end of the book. In this -chapter, we’ll build one more project together to demonstrate some of the -concepts we covered in the final chapters, as well as recap some earlier -lessons. +By opting out of having Rust enforce these guarantees, you can give up +guaranteed safety in exchange for greater performance or the ability to +interface with another language or hardware where Rust’s guarantees don’t apply. -For our final project, we’ll make a web server that says “hello” and looks like -Figure 20-1 in a web browser. - -Figure 20-1: Our final shared project - -Here is our plan for building the web server: - -1. Learn a bit about TCP and HTTP. -1. Listen for TCP connections on a socket. -1. Parse a small number of HTTP requests. -1. Create a proper HTTP response. -1. Improve the throughput of our server with a thread pool. - -Before we get started, we should mention one detail: the method we’ll use won’t -be the best way to build a web server with Rust. Community members have -published a number of production-ready crates available at *https://crates.io* -that provide more complete web server and thread pool implementations than -we’ll build. However, our intention in this chapter is to help you learn, not -to take the easy route. Because Rust is a systems programming language, we can -choose the level of abstraction we want to work with and can go to a lower -level than is possible or practical in other languages. We’ll therefore write -the basic HTTP server and thread pool manually so you can learn the general -ideas and techniques behind the crates you might use in the future. - -## Building a Single-Threaded Web Server +Listing 19-1 shows how to create an immutable and a mutable raw pointer from +references. + +``` +let mut num = 5; -We’ll start by getting a single-threaded web server working. Before we begin, -let’s look at a quick overview of the protocols involved in building web -servers. The details of these protocols are beyond the scope of this book, but -a brief overview will give you the information you need. +let r1 = &num as *const i32; +let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32; +``` -The two main protocols involved in web servers are *Hypertext Transfer -Protocol* *(HTTP)* and *Transmission Control Protocol* *(TCP)*. Both protocols -are *request-response* protocols, meaning a *client* initiates requests and a -*server* listens to the requests and provides a response to the client. The -contents of those requests and responses are defined by the protocols. +Listing 19-1: Creating raw pointers from references -TCP is the lower-level protocol that describes the details of how information -gets from one server to another but doesn’t specify what that information is. -HTTP builds on top of TCP by defining the contents of the requests and -responses. It’s technically possible to use HTTP with other protocols, but in -the vast majority of cases, HTTP sends its data over TCP. We’ll work with the -raw bytes of TCP and HTTP requests and responses. +Notice that we don’t include the `unsafe` keyword in this code. We can create +raw pointers in safe code; we just can’t dereference raw pointers outside an +unsafe block, as you’ll see in a bit. -### Listening to the TCP Connection +We’ve created raw pointers by using `as` to cast an immutable and a mutable +reference into their corresponding raw pointer types. Because we created them +directly from references guaranteed to be valid, we know these particular raw +pointers are valid, but we can’t make that assumption about just any raw +pointer. -Our web server needs to listen to a TCP connection, so that’s the first part -we’ll work on. The standard library offers a `std::net` module that lets us do -this. Let’s make a new project in the usual fashion: +To demonstrate this, next we’ll create a raw pointer whose validity we can’t be +so certain of. Listing 19-2 shows how to create a raw pointer to an arbitrary +location in memory. Trying to use arbitrary memory is undefined: there might be +data at that address or there might not, the compiler might optimize the code +so there is no memory access, or the program might terminate with a +segmentation fault. Usually, there is no good reason to write code like this, +but it is possible. ``` -$ cargo new hello - Created binary (application) `hello` project -$ cd hello +let address = 0x012345usize; +let r = address as *const i32; ``` -Now enter the code in Listing 20-1 in *src/main.rs* to start. This code will -listen at the local address `127.0.0.1:7878` for incoming TCP streams. When it -gets an incoming stream, it will print `Connection established!`. +Listing 19-2: Creating a raw pointer to an arbitrary memory address -Filename: src/main.rs +Recall that we can create raw pointers in safe code, but we can’t *dereference* +raw pointers and read the data being pointed to. In Listing 19-3, we use the +dereference operator `*` on a raw pointer that requires an `unsafe` block. ``` -use std::net::TcpListener; - -fn main() { - 1 let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); +let mut num = 5; - 2 for stream in listener.incoming() { - 3 let stream = stream.unwrap(); +let r1 = &num as *const i32; +let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32; - 4 println!("Connection established!"); - } +unsafe { + println!("r1 is: {}", *r1); + println!("r2 is: {}", *r2); } ``` -Listing 20-1: Listening for incoming streams and printing a message when we -receive a stream - -Using `TcpListener`, we can listen for TCP connections at the address -`127.0.0.1:7878` [1]. In the address, the section before the colon is an IP -address representing your computer (this is the same on every computer and -doesn’t represent the authors’ computer specifically), and `7878` is the port. -We’ve chosen this port for two reasons: HTTP isn’t normally accepted on this -port, so our server is unlikely to conflict with any other web server you might -have running on your machine, and 7878 is *rust* typed on a telephone. - -The `bind` function in this scenario works like the `new` function in that it -will return a new `TcpListener` instance. The function is called `bind` -because, in networking, connecting to a port to listen to is known as “binding -to a port.” - -The `bind` function returns a `Result<T, E>`, which indicates that it’s -possible for binding to fail. For example, connecting to port 80 requires -administrator privileges (non-administrators can listen only on ports higher -than 1023), so if we tried to connect to port 80 without being an -administrator, binding wouldn’t work. Binding also wouldn’t work, for example, -if we ran two instances of our program and so had two programs listening to the -same port. Because we’re writing a basic server just for learning purposes, we -won’t worry about handling these kinds of errors; instead, we use `unwrap` to -stop the program if errors happen. - -The `incoming` method on `TcpListener` returns an iterator that gives us a -sequence of streams [2] (more specifically, streams of type `TcpStream`). A -single *stream* represents an open connection between the client and the -server. A *connection* is the name for the full request and response process in -which a client connects to the server, the server generates a response, and the -server closes the connection. As such, we will read from the `TcpStream` to see -what the client sent and then write our response to the stream to send data -back to the client. Overall, this `for` loop will process each connection in -turn and produce a series of streams for us to handle. - -For now, our handling of the stream consists of calling `unwrap` to terminate -our program if the stream has any errors [3]; if there aren’t any errors, the -program prints a message [4]. We’ll add more functionality for the success case -in the next listing. The reason we might receive errors from the `incoming` -method when a client connects to the server is that we’re not actually -iterating over connections. Instead, we’re iterating over *connection -attempts*. The connection might not be successful for a number of reasons, many -of them operating system specific. For example, many operating systems have a -limit to the number of simultaneous open connections they can support; new -connection attempts beyond that number will produce an error until some of the -open connections are closed. - -Let’s try running this code! Invoke `cargo run` in the terminal and then load -*127.0.0.1:7878* in a web browser. The browser should show an error message -like “Connection reset” because the server isn’t currently sending back any -data. But when you look at your terminal, you should see several messages that -were printed when the browser connected to the server! - -``` - Running `target/debug/hello` -Connection established! -Connection established! -Connection established! -``` - -Sometimes you’ll see multiple messages printed for one browser request; the -reason might be that the browser is making a request for the page as well as a -request for other resources, like the *favicon.ico* icon that appears in the -browser tab. - -It could also be that the browser is trying to connect to the server multiple -times because the server isn’t responding with any data. When `stream` goes out -of scope and is dropped at the end of the loop, the connection is closed as -part of the `drop` implementation. Browsers sometimes deal with closed -connections by retrying, because the problem might be temporary. The important -factor is that we’ve successfully gotten a handle to a TCP connection! - -Remember to stop the program by pressing ctrl-C when you’re done running a -particular version of the code. Then restart the program by invoking the `cargo -run` command after you’ve made each set of code changes to make sure you’re -running the newest code. - -### Reading the Request - -Let’s implement the functionality to read the request from the browser! To -separate the concerns of first getting a connection and then taking some action -with the connection, we’ll start a new function for processing connections. In -this new `handle_connection` function, we’ll read data from the TCP stream and -print it so we can see the data being sent from the browser. Change the code to -look like Listing 20-2. +Listing 19-3: Dereferencing raw pointers within an `unsafe` block -Filename: src/main.rs +Creating a pointer does no harm; it’s only when we try to access the value that +it points at that we might end up dealing with an invalid value. -``` -1 use std::{ - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, -}; +Note also that in Listings 19-1 and 19-3, we created `*const i32` and `*mut +i32` raw pointers that both pointed to the same memory location, where `num` is +stored. If we instead tried to create an immutable and a mutable reference to +`num`, the code would not have compiled because Rust’s ownership rules don’t +allow a mutable reference at the same time as any immutable references. With +raw pointers, we can create a mutable pointer and an immutable pointer to the +same location and change data through the mutable pointer, potentially creating +a data race. Be careful! -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); +With all of these dangers, why would you ever use raw pointers? One major use +case is when interfacing with C code, as you’ll see in “Calling an Unsafe +Function or Method” on page XX. Another case is when building up safe +abstractions that the borrow checker doesn’t understand. We’ll introduce unsafe +functions and then look at an example of a safe abstraction that uses unsafe +code. - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); +### Calling an Unsafe Function or Method - 2 handle_connection(stream); - } -} +The second type of operation you can perform in an unsafe block is calling +unsafe functions. Unsafe functions and methods look exactly like regular +functions and methods, but they have an extra `unsafe` before the rest of the +definition. The `unsafe` keyword in this context indicates the function has +requirements we need to uphold when we call this function, because Rust can’t +guarantee we’ve met these requirements. By calling an unsafe function within an +`unsafe` block, we’re saying that we’ve read this function’s documentation and +we take responsibility for upholding the function’s contracts. + +Here is an unsafe function named `dangerous` that doesn’t do anything in its +body: -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - 3 let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - 4 let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader - 5 .lines() - 6 .map(|result| result.unwrap()) - 7 .take_while(|line| !line.is_empty()) - .collect(); - - 8 println!("Request: {:#?}", http_request); -} -``` - -Listing 20-2: Reading from the `TcpStream` and printing the data - -We bring `std::io::prelude` and `std::io::BufReader` into scope to get access -to traits and types that let us read from and write to the stream [1]. In the -`for` loop in the `main` function, instead of printing a message that says we -made a connection, we now call the new `handle_connection` function and pass -the `stream` to it [2]. - -In the `handle_connection` function, we create a new `BufReader` instance that -wraps a mutable reference to the `stream` [3]. `BufReader` adds buffering by -managing calls to the `std::io::Read` trait methods for us. - -We create a variable named `http_request` to collect the lines of the request -the browser sends to our server. We indicate that we want to collect these -lines in a vector by adding the `Vec<_>` type annotation [4]. - -`BufReader` implements the `std::io::BufRead` trait, which provides the `lines` -method [5]. The `lines` method returns an iterator of `Result<String, -std::io::Error>` by splitting the stream of data whenever it sees a newline -byte. To get each `String`, we map and `unwrap` each `Result` [6]. The `Result` -might be an error if the data isn’t valid UTF-8 or if there was a problem -reading from the stream. Again, a production program should handle these errors -more gracefully, but we’re choosing to stop the program in the error case for -simplicity. +``` +unsafe fn dangerous() {} -The browser signals the end of an HTTP request by sending two newline -characters in a row, so to get one request from the stream, we take lines until -we get a line that is the empty string [7]. Once we’ve collected the lines into -the vector, we’re printing them out using pretty debug formatting [8] so we can -take a look at the instructions the web browser is sending to our server. +unsafe { + dangerous(); +} +``` -Let’s try this code! Start the program and make a request in a web browser -again. Note that we’ll still get an error page in the browser, but our -program’s output in the terminal will now look similar to this: +We must call the `dangerous` function within a separate `unsafe` block. If we +try to call `dangerous` without the `unsafe` block, we’ll get an error: ``` -$ cargo run - Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.42s - Running `target/debug/hello` -Request: [ - "GET / HTTP/1.1", - "Host: 127.0.0.1:7878", - "User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10.15; rv:99.0) -Gecko/20100101 Firefox/99.0", - "Accept: -text/html,application/xhtml+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,image/avif,image/webp,*/* -;q=0.8", - "Accept-Language: en-US,en;q=0.5", - "Accept-Encoding: gzip, deflate, br", - "DNT: 1", - "Connection: keep-alive", - "Upgrade-Insecure-Requests: 1", - "Sec-Fetch-Dest: document", - "Sec-Fetch-Mode: navigate", - "Sec-Fetch-Site: none", - "Sec-Fetch-User: ?1", - "Cache-Control: max-age=0", -] +error[E0133]: call to unsafe function is unsafe and requires +unsafe function or block + --> src/main.rs:4:5 + | +4 | dangerous(); + | ^^^^^^^^^^^ call to unsafe function + | + = note: consult the function's documentation for information on +how to avoid undefined behavior ``` -Depending on your browser, you might get slightly different output. Now that -we’re printing the request data, we can see why we get multiple connections -from one browser request by looking at the path after `GET` in the first line -of the request. If the repeated connections are all requesting */*, we know the -browser is trying to fetch */* repeatedly because it’s not getting a response -from our program. +With the `unsafe` block, we’re asserting to Rust that we’ve read the function’s +documentation, we understand how to use it properly, and we’ve verified that +we’re fulfilling the contract of the function. -Let’s break down this request data to understand what the browser is asking of -our program. +Bodies of unsafe functions are effectively `unsafe` blocks, so to perform other +unsafe operations within an unsafe function, we don’t need to add another +`unsafe` block. -### A Closer Look at an HTTP Request +#### Creating a Safe Abstraction over Unsafe Code -HTTP is a text-based protocol, and a request takes this format: +Just because a function contains unsafe code doesn’t mean we need to mark the +entire function as unsafe. In fact, wrapping unsafe code in a safe function is +a common abstraction. As an example, let’s study the `split_at_mut` function +from the standard library, which requires some unsafe code. We’ll explore how +we might implement it. This safe method is defined on mutable slices: it takes +one slice and makes it two by splitting the slice at the index given as an +argument. Listing 19-4 shows how to use `split_at_mut`. ``` -Method Request-URI HTTP-Version CRLF -headers CRLF -message-body -``` +let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]; -The first line is the *request line* that holds information about what the -client is requesting. The first part of the request line indicates the *method* -being used, such as `GET` or `POST`, which describes how the client is making -this request. Our client used a `GET` request, which means it is asking for -information. +let r = &mut v[..]; -The next part of the request line is */*, which indicates the *uniform resource -identifier* *(URI)* the client is requesting: a URI is almost, but not quite, -the same as a *uniform resource locator* *(URL)*. The difference between URIs -and URLs isn’t important for our purposes in this chapter, but the HTTP spec -uses the term *URI*, so we can just mentally substitute *URL* for *URI* here. +let (a, b) = r.split_at_mut(3); -The last part is the HTTP version the client uses, and then the request line -ends in a CRLF sequence. (CRLF stands for *carriage return* and *line feed*, -which are terms from the typewriter days!) The CRLF sequence can also be -written as `\r\n`, where `\r` is a carriage return and `\n` is a line feed. The -*CRLF sequence* separates the request line from the rest of the request data. -Note that when the CRLF is printed, we see a new line start rather than `\r\n`. +assert_eq!(a, &mut [1, 2, 3]); +assert_eq!(b, &mut [4, 5, 6]); +``` -Looking at the request line data we received from running our program so far, -we see that `GET` is the method, */* is the request URI, and `HTTP/1.1` is the -version. +Listing 19-4: Using the safe `split_at_mut` function -After the request line, the remaining lines starting from `Host:` onward are -headers. `GET` requests have no body. +We can’t implement this function using only safe Rust. An attempt might look +something like Listing 19-5, which won’t compile. For simplicity, we’ll +implement `split_at_mut` as a function rather than a method and only for slices +of `i32` values rather than for a generic type `T`. -Try making a request from a different browser or asking for a different -address, such as *127.0.0.1:7878/test*, to see how the request data changes. +``` +fn split_at_mut( + values: &mut [i32], + mid: usize, +) -> (&mut [i32], &mut [i32]) { + let len = values.len(); -Now that we know what the browser is asking for, let’s send back some data! + assert!(mid <= len); -### Writing a Response + (&mut values[..mid], &mut values[mid..]) +} +``` -We’re going to implement sending data in response to a client request. -Responses have the following format: +Listing 19-5: An attempted implementation of `split_at_mut` using only safe Rust -``` -HTTP-Version Status-Code Reason-Phrase CRLF -headers CRLF -message-body -``` +This function first gets the total length of the slice. Then it asserts that +the index given as a parameter is within the slice by checking whether it’s +less than or equal to the length. The assertion means that if we pass an index +that is greater than the length to split the slice at, the function will panic +before it attempts to use that index. -The first line is a *status line* that contains the HTTP version used in the -response, a numeric status code that summarizes the result of the request, and -a reason phrase that provides a text description of the status code. After the -CRLF sequence are any headers, another CRLF sequence, and the body of the -response. +Then we return two mutable slices in a tuple: one from the start of the +original slice to the `mid` index and another from `mid` to the end of the +slice. -Here is an example response that uses HTTP version 1.1, and has a status code -of 200, an OK reason phrase, no headers, and no body: +When we try to compile the code in Listing 19-5, we’ll get an error: ``` -HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n\r\n +error[E0499]: cannot borrow `*values` as mutable more than once at a time + --> src/main.rs:9:31 + | +2 | values: &mut [i32], + | - let's call the lifetime of this reference `'1` +... +9 | (&mut values[..mid], &mut values[mid..]) + | --------------------------^^^^^^-------- + | | | | + | | | second mutable borrow occurs here + | | first mutable borrow occurs here + | returning this value requires that `*values` is borrowed for `'1` ``` -The status code 200 is the standard success response. The text is a tiny -successful HTTP response. Let’s write this to the stream as our response to a -successful request! From the `handle_connection` function, remove the -`println!` that was printing the request data and replace it with the code in -Listing 20-3. +Rust’s borrow checker can’t understand that we’re borrowing different parts of +the slice; it only knows that we’re borrowing from the same slice twice. +Borrowing different parts of a slice is fundamentally okay because the two +slices aren’t overlapping, but Rust isn’t smart enough to know this. When we +know code is okay, but Rust doesn’t, it’s time to reach for unsafe code. -Filename: src/main.rs +Listing 19-6 shows how to use an `unsafe` block, a raw pointer, and some calls +to unsafe functions to make the implementation of `split_at_mut` work. ``` -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader - .lines() - .map(|result| result.unwrap()) - .take_while(|line| !line.is_empty()) - .collect(); +use std::slice; + +fn split_at_mut( + values: &mut [i32], + mid: usize, +) -> (&mut [i32], &mut [i32]) { + 1 let len = values.len(); + 2 let ptr = values.as_mut_ptr(); - 1 let response = "HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n\r\n"; + 3 assert!(mid <= len); - 2 stream.write_all(response.3 as_bytes()).unwrap(); + 4 unsafe { + ( + 5 slice::from_raw_parts_mut(ptr, mid), + 6 slice::from_raw_parts_mut(ptr.add(mid), len - mid), + ) + } } ``` -Listing 20-3: Writing a tiny successful HTTP response to the stream +Listing 19-6: Using unsafe code in the implementation of the `split_at_mut` +function + +Recall from “The Slice Type” on page XX that a slice is a pointer to some data +and the length of the slice. We use the `len` method to get the length of a +slice [1] and the `as_mut_ptr` method to access the raw pointer of a slice [2]. +In this case, because we have a mutable slice to `i32` values, `as_mut_ptr` +returns a raw pointer with the type `*mut i32`, which we’ve stored in the +variable `ptr`. + +We keep the assertion that the `mid` index is within the slice [3]. Then we get +to the unsafe code [4]: the `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` function takes a raw +pointer and a length, and it creates a slice. We use it to create a slice that +starts from `ptr` and is `mid` items long [5]. Then we call the `add` method on +`ptr` with `mid` as an argument to get a raw pointer that starts at `mid`, and +we create a slice using that pointer and the remaining number of items after +`mid` as the length [6]. + +The function `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` is unsafe because it takes a raw +pointer and must trust that this pointer is valid. The `add` method on raw +pointers is also unsafe because it must trust that the offset location is also +a valid pointer. Therefore, we had to put an `unsafe` block around our calls to +`slice::from_raw_parts_mut` and `add` so we could call them. By looking at the +code and by adding the assertion that `mid` must be less than or equal to +`len`, we can tell that all the raw pointers used within the `unsafe` block +will be valid pointers to data within the slice. This is an acceptable and +appropriate use of `unsafe`. + +Note that we don’t need to mark the resultant `split_at_mut` function as +`unsafe`, and we can call this function from safe Rust. We’ve created a safe +abstraction to the unsafe code with an implementation of the function that uses +`unsafe` code in a safe way, because it creates only valid pointers from the +data this function has access to. + +In contrast, the use of `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` in Listing 19-7 would +likely crash when the slice is used. This code takes an arbitrary memory +location and creates a slice 10,000 items long. + +``` +use std::slice; + +let address = 0x01234usize; +let r = address as *mut i32; + +let values: &[i32] = unsafe { + slice::from_raw_parts_mut(r, 10000) +}; +``` -The first new line defines the `response` variable that holds the success -message’s data [1]. Then we call `as_bytes` on our `response` to convert the -string data to bytes [3]. The `write_all` method on `stream` takes a `&[u8]` -and sends those bytes directly down the connection [2]. Because the `write_all` -operation could fail, we use `unwrap` on any error result as before. Again, in -a real application you would add error handling here. +Listing 19-7: Creating a slice from an arbitrary memory location -With these changes, let’s run our code and make a request. We’re no longer -printing any data to the terminal, so we won’t see any output other than the -output from Cargo. When you load *127.0.0.1:7878* in a web browser, you should -get a blank page instead of an error. You’ve just handcoded receiving an HTTP -request and sending a response! +We don’t own the memory at this arbitrary location, and there is no guarantee +that the slice this code creates contains valid `i32` values. Attempting to use +`values` as though it’s a valid slice results in undefined behavior. -### Returning Real HTML +#### Using extern Functions to Call External Code -Let’s implement the functionality for returning more than a blank page. Create -the new file *hello.html* in the root of your project directory, not in the -*src* directory. You can input any HTML you want; Listing 20-4 shows one -possibility. +Sometimes your Rust code might need to interact with code written in another +language. For this, Rust has the keyword `extern` that facilitates the creation +and use of a *Foreign Function Interface* *(FFI)*, which is a way for a +programming language to define functions and enable a different (foreign) +programming language to call those functions. -Filename: hello.html +Listing 19-8 demonstrates how to set up an integration with the `abs` function +from the C standard library. Functions declared within `extern` blocks are +always unsafe to call from Rust code. The reason is that other languages don’t +enforce Rust’s rules and guarantees, and Rust can’t check them, so +responsibility falls on the programmer to ensure safety. + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -<!DOCTYPE html> -<html lang="en"> - <head> - <meta charset="utf-8"> - <title>Hello! - - -

Hello!

-

Hi from Rust

- - -``` +extern "C" { + fn abs(input: i32) -> i32; +} -Listing 20-4: A sample HTML file to return in a response +fn main() { + unsafe { + println!( + "Absolute value of -3 according to C: {}", + abs(-3) + ); + } +} +``` -This is a minimal HTML5 document with a heading and some text. To return this -from the server when a request is received, we’ll modify `handle_connection` as -shown in Listing 20-5 to read the HTML file, add it to the response as a body, -and send it. +Listing 19-8: Declaring and calling an `extern` function defined in another +language + +Within the `extern "C"` block, we list the names and signatures of external +functions from another language we want to call. The `"C"` part defines which +*application binary interface* *(ABI)* the external function uses: the ABI +defines how to call the function at the assembly level. The `"C"` ABI is the +most common and follows the C programming language’s ABI. + +> ### Calling Rust Functions from Other Languages +> +> We can also use `extern` to create an interface that allows other languages +to call Rust functions. Instead of creating a whole `extern` block, we add the +`extern` keyword and specify the ABI to use just before the `fn` keyword for +the relevant function. We also need to add a `#[no_mangle]` annotation to tell +the Rust compiler not to mangle the name of this function. *Mangling* is when a +compiler changes the name we’ve given a function to a different name that +contains more information for other parts of the compilation process to consume +but is less human readable. Every programming language compiler mangles names +slightly differently, so for a Rust function to be nameable by other languages, +we must disable the Rust compiler’s name mangling. +> +> In the following example, we make the `call_from_c` function accessible from +C code, after it’s compiled to a shared library and linked from C: +> +> ``` +> #[no_mangle] +> pub extern "C" fn call_from_c() { +> println!("Just called a Rust function from C!"); +> } +> ``` +> +> This usage of `extern` does not require `unsafe`. + +### Accessing or Modifying a Mutable Static Variable + +In this book, we’ve not yet talked about global variables, which Rust does +support but can be problematic with Rust’s ownership rules. If two threads are +accessing the same mutable global variable, it can cause a data race. + +In Rust, global variables are called *static* variables. Listing 19-9 shows an +example declaration and use of a static variable with a string slice as a value. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use std::{ - 1 fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, -}; ---snip-- - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader - .lines() - .map(|result| result.unwrap()) - .take_while(|line| !line.is_empty()) - .collect(); - - let status_line = "HTTP/1.1 200 OK"; - let contents = fs::read_to_string("hello.html").unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - 2 let response = format!( - "{status_line}\r\n\ - Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n\ - {contents}" - ); +static HELLO_WORLD: &str = "Hello, world!"; - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +fn main() { + println!("value is: {HELLO_WORLD}"); } ``` -Listing 20-5: Sending the contents of *hello.html* as the body of the response - -We’ve added `fs` to the `use` statement to bring the standard library’s -filesystem module into scope [1]. The code for reading the contents of a file -to a string should look familiar; we used it when we read the contents of a -file for our I/O project in Listing 12-4. +Listing 19-9: Defining and using an immutable static variable -Next, we use `format!` to add the file’s contents as the body of the success -response [2]. To ensure a valid HTTP response, we add the `Content-Length` -header which is set to the size of our response body, in this case the size of -`hello.html`. +Static variables are similar to constants, which we discussed in “Constants” on +page XX. The names of static variables are in `SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE` by +convention. Static variables can only store references with the `'static` +lifetime, which means the Rust compiler can figure out the lifetime and we +aren’t required to annotate it explicitly. Accessing an immutable static +variable is safe. -Run this code with `cargo run` and load *127.0.0.1:7878* in your browser; you -should see your HTML rendered! +A subtle difference between constants and immutable static variables is that +values in a static variable have a fixed address in memory. Using the value +will always access the same data. Constants, on the other hand, are allowed to +duplicate their data whenever they’re used. Another difference is that static +variables can be mutable. Accessing and modifying mutable static variables is +*unsafe*. Listing 19-10 shows how to declare, access, and modify a mutable +static variable named `COUNTER`. -Currently, we’re ignoring the request data in `http_request` and just sending -back the contents of the HTML file unconditionally. That means if you try -requesting *127.0.0.1:7878/something-else* in your browser, you’ll still get -back this same HTML response. At the moment, our server is very limited and -does not do what most web servers do. We want to customize our responses -depending on the request and only send back the HTML file for a well-formed -request to */*. +Filename: src/main.rs -### Validating the Request and Selectively Responding +``` +static mut COUNTER: u32 = 0; -Right now, our web server will return the HTML in the file no matter what the -client requested. Let’s add functionality to check that the browser is -requesting */* before returning the HTML file, and return an error if the -browser requests anything else. For this we need to modify `handle_connection`, -as shown in Listing 20-6. This new code checks the content of the request -received against what we know a request for */* looks like and adds `if` and -`else` blocks to treat requests differently. +fn add_to_count(inc: u32) { + unsafe { + COUNTER += inc; + } +} -Filename: src/main.rs +fn main() { + add_to_count(3); + unsafe { + println!("COUNTER: {COUNTER}"); + } +} ``` ---snip-- -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - 1 let request_line = buf_reader - .lines() - .next() - .unwrap() - .unwrap(); +Listing 19-10: Reading from or writing to a mutable static variable is unsafe. - 2 if request_line == "GET / HTTP/1.1" { - let status_line = "HTTP/1.1 200 OK"; - let contents = fs::read_to_string("hello.html").unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); +As with regular variables, we specify mutability using the `mut` keyword. Any +code that reads or writes from `COUNTER` must be within an `unsafe` block. This +code compiles and prints `COUNTER: 3` as we would expect because it’s single +threaded. Having multiple threads access `COUNTER` would likely result in data +races. - let response = format!( - "{status_line}\r\n\ - Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n\ - {contents}" - ); +With mutable data that is globally accessible, it’s difficult to ensure there +are no data races, which is why Rust considers mutable static variables to be +unsafe. Where possible, it’s preferable to use the concurrency techniques and +thread-safe smart pointers we discussed in Chapter 16 so the compiler checks +that data access from different threads is done safely. - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); - 3 } else { - // some other request - } +### Implementing an Unsafe Trait + +We can use `unsafe` to implement an unsafe trait. A trait is unsafe when at +least one of its methods has some invariant that the compiler can’t verify. We +declare that a trait is `unsafe` by adding the `unsafe` keyword before `trait` +and marking the implementation of the trait as `unsafe` too, as shown in +Listing 19-11. + +``` +unsafe trait Foo { + // methods go here +} + +unsafe impl Foo for i32 { + // method implementations go here } ``` -Listing 20-6: Handling requests to */* differently from other requests +Listing 19-11: Defining and implementing an unsafe trait -We’re only going to be looking at the first line of the HTTP request, so rather -than reading the entire request into a vector, we’re calling `next` to get the -first item from the iterator [1]. The first `unwrap` takes care of the `Option` -and stops the program if the iterator has no items. The second `unwrap` handles -the `Result` and has the same effect as the `unwrap` that was in the `map` -added in Listing 20-2. +By using `unsafe impl`, we’re promising that we’ll uphold the invariants that +the compiler can’t verify. -Next, we check the `request_line` to see if it equals the request line of a GET -request to the */* path [2]. If it does, the `if` block returns the contents of -our HTML file. +As an example, recall the `Send` and `Sync` marker traits we discussed in +“Extensible Concurrency with the Send and Sync Traits” on page XX: the compiler +implements these traits automatically if our types are composed entirely of +`Send` and `Sync` types. If we implement a type that contains a type that is +not `Send` or `Sync`, such as raw pointers, and we want to mark that type as +`Send` or `Sync`, we must use `unsafe`. Rust can’t verify that our type upholds +the guarantees that it can be safely sent across threads or accessed from +multiple threads; therefore, we need to do those checks manually and indicate +as such with `unsafe`. -If the `request_line` does *not* equal the GET request to the */* path, it -means we’ve received some other request. We’ll add code to the `else` block [3] -in a moment to respond to all other requests. +### Accessing Fields of a Union -Run this code now and request *127.0.0.1:7878*; you should get the HTML in -*hello.html*. If you make any other request, such as -*127.0.0.1:7878/something-else*, you’ll get a connection error like those you -saw when running the code in Listing 20-1 and Listing 20-2. +The final action that works only with `unsafe` is accessing fields of a union. +A `union` is similar to a `struct`, but only one declared field is used in a +particular instance at one time. Unions are primarily used to interface with +unions in C code. Accessing union fields is unsafe because Rust can’t guarantee +the type of the data currently being stored in the union instance. You can +learn more about unions in the Rust Reference at +*https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/items/unions.html**.* -Now let’s add the code in Listing 20-7 to the `else` block to return a response -with the status code 404, which signals that the content for the request was -not found. We’ll also return some HTML for a page to render in the browser -indicating the response to the end user. +### When to Use Unsafe Code -Filename: src/main.rs +Using `unsafe` to use one of the five superpowers just discussed isn’t wrong or +even frowned upon, but it is trickier to get `unsafe` code correct because the +compiler can’t help uphold memory safety. When you have a reason to use +`unsafe` code, you can do so, and having the explicit `unsafe` annotation makes +it easier to track down the source of problems when they occur. -``` ---snip-- -} else { - 1 let status_line = "HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND"; - 2 let contents = fs::read_to_string("404.html").unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); +## Advanced Traits - let response = format!( - "{status_line}\r\n\ - Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n - {contents}" - ); +We first covered traits in “Traits: Defining Shared Behavior” on page XX, but +we didn’t discuss the more advanced details. Now that you know more about Rust, +we can get into the nitty-gritty. + +### Associated Types - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +*Associated types* connect a type placeholder with a trait such that the trait +method definitions can use these placeholder types in their signatures. The +implementor of a trait will specify the concrete type to be used instead of the +placeholder type for the particular implementation. That way, we can define a +trait that uses some types without needing to know exactly what those types are +until the trait is implemented. + +We’ve described most of the advanced features in this chapter as being rarely +needed. Associated types are somewhere in the middle: they’re used more rarely +than features explained in the rest of the book but more commonly than many of +the other features discussed in this chapter. + +One example of a trait with an associated type is the `Iterator` trait that the +standard library provides. The associated type is named `Item` and stands in +for the type of the values the type implementing the `Iterator` trait is +iterating over. The definition of the `Iterator` trait is as shown in Listing +19-12. + +``` +pub trait Iterator { + type Item; + + fn next(&mut self) -> Option; } ``` -Listing 20-7: Responding with status code 404 and an error page if anything -other than */* was requested +Listing 19-12: The definition of the `Iterator` trait that has an associated +type `Item` -Here, our response has a status line with status code 404 and the reason phrase -`NOT FOUND` [1]. The body of the response will be the HTML in the file -*404.html* [1]. You’ll need to create a *404.html* file next to *hello.html* -for the error page; again feel free to use any HTML you want, or use the -example HTML in Listing 20-8. +The type `Item` is a placeholder, and the `next` method’s definition shows that +it will return values of type `Option`. Implementors of the +`Iterator` trait will specify the concrete type for `Item`, and the `next` +method will return an `Option` containing a value of that concrete type. -Filename: 404.html +Associated types might seem like a similar concept to generics, in that the +latter allow us to define a function without specifying what types it can +handle. To examine the difference between the two concepts, we’ll look at an +implementation of the `Iterator` trait on a type named `Counter` that specifies +the `Item` type is `u32`: + +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` - - - - - Hello! - - -

Oops!

-

Sorry, I don't know what you're asking for.

- - -``` +impl Iterator for Counter { + type Item = u32; -Listing 20-8: Sample content for the page to send back with any 404 response + fn next(&mut self) -> Option { + --snip-- +``` -With these changes, run your server again. Requesting *127.0.0.1:7878* should -return the contents of *hello.html*, and any other request, like -*127.0.0.1:7878/foo*, should return the error HTML from *404.html*. +This syntax seems comparable to that of generics. So why not just define the +`Iterator` trait with generics, as shown in Listing 19-13? -### A Touch of Refactoring +``` +pub trait Iterator { + fn next(&mut self) -> Option; +} +``` -At the moment, the `if` and `else` blocks have a lot of repetition: they’re -both reading files and writing the contents of the files to the stream. The -only differences are the status line and the filename. Let’s make the code more -concise by pulling out those differences into separate `if` and `else` lines -that will assign the values of the status line and the filename to variables; -we can then use those variables unconditionally in the code to read the file -and write the response. Listing 20-9 shows the resultant code after replacing -the large `if` and `else` blocks. +Listing 19-13: A hypothetical definition of the `Iterator` trait using generics + +The difference is that when using generics, as in Listing 19-13, we must +annotate the types in each implementation; because we can also implement +`Iterator<``String``> for Counter` or any other type, we could have multiple +implementations of `Iterator` for `Counter`. In other words, when a trait has a +generic parameter, it can be implemented for a type multiple times, changing +the concrete types of the generic type parameters each time. When we use the +`next` method on `Counter`, we would have to provide type annotations to +indicate which implementation of `Iterator` we want to use. + +With associated types, we don’t need to annotate types because we can’t +implement a trait on a type multiple times. In Listing 19-12 with the +definition that uses associated types, we can choose what the type of `Item` +will be only once because there can be only one `impl Iterator for Counter`. We +don’t have to specify that we want an iterator of `u32` values everywhere we +call `next` on `Counter`. + +Associated types also become part of the trait’s contract: implementors of the +trait must provide a type to stand in for the associated type placeholder. +Associated types often have a name that describes how the type will be used, +and documenting the associated type in the API documentation is a good practice. + +### Default Generic Type Parameters and Operator Overloading + +When we use generic type parameters, we can specify a default concrete type for +the generic type. This eliminates the need for implementors of the trait to +specify a concrete type if the default type works. You specify a default type +when declaring a generic type with the `<`PlaceholderType`=`ConcreteType`>` +syntax. + +A great example of a situation where this technique is useful is with *operator +overloading*, in which you customize the behavior of an operator (such as `+`) +in particular situations. + +Rust doesn’t allow you to create your own operators or overload arbitrary +operators. But you can overload the operations and corresponding traits listed +in `std::ops` by implementing the traits associated with the operator. For +example, in Listing 19-14 we overload the `+` operator to add two `Point` +instances together. We do this by implementing the `Add` trait on a `Point` +struct. Filename: src/main.rs ``` ---snip-- +use std::ops::Add; -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - --snip-- +#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq)] +struct Point { + x: i32, + y: i32, +} - let (status_line, filename) = - if request_line == "GET / HTTP/1.1" { - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } else { - ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html") - }; +impl Add for Point { + type Output = Point; - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); + fn add(self, other: Point) -> Point { + Point { + x: self.x + other.x, + y: self.y + other.y, + } + } +} - let response = format!( - "{status_line}\r\n\ - Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n\ - {contents}" +fn main() { + assert_eq!( + Point { x: 1, y: 0 } + Point { x: 2, y: 3 }, + Point { x: 3, y: 3 } ); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); } ``` -Listing 20-9: Refactoring the `if` and `else` blocks to contain only the code -that differs between the two cases - -Now the `if` and `else` blocks only return the appropriate values for the -status line and filename in a tuple; we then use destructuring to assign these -two values to `status_line` and `filename` using a pattern in the `let` -statement, as discussed in Chapter 18. +Listing 19-14: Implementing the `Add` trait to overload the `+` operator for +`Point` instances -The previously duplicated code is now outside the `if` and `else` blocks and -uses the `status_line` and `filename` variables. This makes it easier to see -the difference between the two cases, and it means we have only one place to -update the code if we want to change how the file reading and response writing -work. The behavior of the code in Listing 20-9 will be the same as that in -Listing 20-8. +The `add` method adds the `x` values of two `Point` instances and the `y` +values of two `Point` instances to create a new `Point`. The `Add` trait has an +associated type named `Output` that determines the type returned from the `add` +method. -Awesome! We now have a simple web server in approximately 40 lines of Rust code -that responds to one request with a page of content and responds to all other -requests with a 404 response. +The default generic type in this code is within the `Add` trait. Here is its +definition: -Currently, our server runs in a single thread, meaning it can only serve one -request at a time. Let’s examine how that can be a problem by simulating some -slow requests. Then we’ll fix it so our server can handle multiple requests at -once. +``` +trait Add { + type Output; -## Turning Our Single-Threaded Server into a Multithreaded Server + fn add(self, rhs: Rhs) -> Self::Output; +} +``` -Right now, the server will process each request in turn, meaning it won’t -process a second connection until the first is finished processing. If the -server received more and more requests, this serial execution would be less and -less optimal. If the server receives a request that takes a long time to -process, subsequent requests will have to wait until the long request is -finished, even if the new requests can be processed quickly. We’ll need to fix -this, but first we’ll look at the problem in action. +This code should look generally familiar: a trait with one method and an +associated type. The new part is `Rhs=Self`: this syntax is called *default +type parameters*. The `Rhs` generic type parameter (short for “right-hand +side”) defines the type of the `rhs` parameter in the `add` method. If we don’t +specify a concrete type for `Rhs` when we implement the `Add` trait, the type +of `Rhs` will default to `Self`, which will be the type we’re implementing +`Add` on. -### Simulating a Slow Request +When we implemented `Add` for `Point`, we used the default for `Rhs` because we +wanted to add two `Point` instances. Let’s look at an example of implementing +the `Add` trait where we want to customize the `Rhs` type rather than using the +default. -We’ll look at how a slow-processing request can affect other requests made to -our current server implementation. Listing 20-10 implements handling a request -to */sleep* with a simulated slow response that will cause the server to sleep -for five seconds before responding. +We have two structs, `Millimeters` and `Meters`, holding values in different +units. This thin wrapping of an existing type in another struct is known as the +*newtype pattern*, which we describe in more detail in “Using the Newtype +Pattern to Implement External Traits on External Types” on page XX. We want to +add values in millimeters to values in meters and have the implementation of +`Add` do the conversion correctly. We can implement `Add` for `Millimeters` +with `Meters` as the `Rhs`, as shown in Listing 19-15. -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; ---snip-- +use std::ops::Add; -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - --snip-- +struct Millimeters(u32); +struct Meters(u32); - let (status_line, filename) = 1 match &request_line[..] { - 2 "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - 3 "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - 4 _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; +impl Add for Millimeters { + type Output = Millimeters; - --snip-- + fn add(self, other: Meters) -> Millimeters { + Millimeters(self.0 + (other.0 * 1000)) + } } ``` -Listing 20-10: Simulating a slow request by sleeping for five seconds - -We switched from `if` to `match` now that we have three cases [1]. We need to -explicitly match on a slice of `request_line` to pattern-match against the -string literal values; `match` doesn’t do automatic referencing and -dereferencing, like the equality method does. - -The first arm [2] is the same as the `if` block from Listing 20-9. The second -arm [3] matches a request to */sleep*. When that request is received, the -server will sleep for five seconds before rendering the successful HTML page. -The third arm [4] is the same as the `else` block from Listing 20-9. - -You can see how primitive our server is: real libraries would handle the -recognition of multiple requests in a much less verbose way! - -Start the server using `cargo run`. Then open two browser windows: one for -*http://127.0.0.1:7878* and the other for *http://127.0.0.1:7878/sleep*. If you -enter the */* URI a few times, as before, you’ll see it respond quickly. But if -you enter */sleep* and then load */*, you’ll see that */* waits until `sleep` -has slept for its full five seconds before loading. - -There are multiple techniques we could use to avoid requests backing up behind -a slow request; the one we’ll implement is a thread pool. - -### Improving Throughput with a Thread Pool - -A *thread pool* is a group of spawned threads that are waiting and ready to -handle a task. When the program receives a new task, it assigns one of the -threads in the pool to the task, and that thread will process the task. The -remaining threads in the pool are available to handle any other tasks that come -in while the first thread is processing. When the first thread is done -processing its task, it’s returned to the pool of idle threads, ready to handle -a new task. A thread pool allows you to process connections concurrently, -increasing the throughput of your server. - -We’ll limit the number of threads in the pool to a small number to protect us -from DoS attacks; if we had our program create a new thread for each request as -it came in, someone making 10 million requests to our server could create havoc -by using up all our server’s resources and grinding the processing of requests -to a halt. - -Rather than spawning unlimited threads, then, we’ll have a fixed number of -threads waiting in the pool. Requests that come in are sent to the pool for -processing. The pool will maintain a queue of incoming requests. Each of the -threads in the pool will pop off a request from this queue, handle the request, -and then ask the queue for another request. With this design, we can process up -to N requests concurrently, where N is the number of threads. If each thread is -responding to a long-running request, subsequent requests can still back up in -the queue, but we’ve increased the number of long-running requests we can -handle before reaching that point. - -This technique is just one of many ways to improve the throughput of a web -server. Other options you might explore are the fork/join model, the -single-threaded async I/O model, and the multithreaded async I/O model. If -you’re interested in this topic, you can read more about other solutions and -try to implement them; with a low-level language like Rust, all of these -options are possible. - -Before we begin implementing a thread pool, let’s talk about what using the -pool should look like. When you’re trying to design code, writing the client -interface first can help guide your design. Write the API of the code so it’s -structured in the way you want to call it; then implement the functionality -within that structure rather than implementing the functionality and then -designing the public API. - -Similar to how we used test-driven development in the project in Chapter 12, -we’ll use compiler-driven development here. We’ll write the code that calls the -functions we want, and then we’ll look at errors from the compiler to determine -what we should change next to get the code to work. Before we do that, however, -we’ll explore the technique we’re not going to use as a starting point. - -#### Spawning a Thread for Each Request - -First, let’s explore how our code might look if it did create a new thread for -every connection. As mentioned earlier, this isn’t our final plan due to the -problems with potentially spawning an unlimited number of threads, but it is a -starting point to get a working multithreaded server first. Then we’ll add the -thread pool as an improvement, and contrasting the two solutions will be easier. - -Listing 20-11 shows the changes to make to `main` to spawn a new thread to -handle each stream within the `for` loop. +Listing 19-15: Implementing the `Add` trait on `Millimeters` to add +`Millimeters` and `Meters` + +To add `Millimeters` and `Meters`, we specify `impl Add` to set the +value of the `Rhs` type parameter instead of using the default of `Self`. + +You’ll use default type parameters in two main ways: + +1. To extend a type without breaking existing code +1. To allow customization in specific cases most users won’t need + +The standard library’s `Add` trait is an example of the second purpose: +usually, you’ll add two like types, but the `Add` trait provides the ability to +customize beyond that. Using a default type parameter in the `Add` trait +definition means you don’t have to specify the extra parameter most of the +time. In other words, a bit of implementation boilerplate isn’t needed, making +it easier to use the trait. + +The first purpose is similar to the second but in reverse: if you want to add a +type parameter to an existing trait, you can give it a default to allow +extension of the functionality of the trait without breaking the existing +implementation code. + +### Disambiguating Between Methods with the Same Name + +Nothing in Rust prevents a trait from having a method with the same name as +another trait’s method, nor does Rust prevent you from implementing both traits +on one type. It’s also possible to implement a method directly on the type with +the same name as methods from traits. + +When calling methods with the same name, you’ll need to tell Rust which one you +want to use. Consider the code in Listing 19-16 where we’ve defined two traits, +`Pilot` and `Wizard`, that both have a method called `fly`. We then implement +both traits on a type `Human` that already has a method named `fly` implemented +on it. Each `fly` method does something different. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); +trait Pilot { + fn fly(&self); +} - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); +trait Wizard { + fn fly(&self); +} - thread::spawn(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); +struct Human; + +impl Pilot for Human { + fn fly(&self) { + println!("This is your captain speaking."); } } -``` -Listing 20-11: Spawning a new thread for each stream +impl Wizard for Human { + fn fly(&self) { + println!("Up!"); + } +} -As you learned in Chapter 16, `thread::spawn` will create a new thread and then -run the code in the closure in the new thread. If you run this code and load -*/sleep* in your browser, then */* in two more browser tabs, you’ll indeed see -that the requests to */* don’t have to wait for */sleep* to finish. However, as -we mentioned, this will eventually overwhelm the system because you’d be making -new threads without any limit. +impl Human { + fn fly(&self) { + println!("*waving arms furiously*"); + } +} +``` -#### Creating a Finite Number of Threads +Listing 19-16: Two traits are defined to have a `fly` method and are +implemented on the `Human` type, and a `fly` method is implemented on `Human` +directly. -We want our thread pool to work in a similar, familiar way so that switching -from threads to a thread pool doesn’t require large changes to the code that -uses our API. Listing 20-12 shows the hypothetical interface for a `ThreadPool` -struct we want to use instead of `thread::spawn`. +When we call `fly` on an instance of `Human`, the compiler defaults to calling +the method that is directly implemented on the type, as shown in Listing 19-17. Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - 1 let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - 2 pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } + let person = Human; + person.fly(); } ``` -Listing 20-12: Our ideal `ThreadPool` interface +Listing 19-17: Calling `fly` on an instance of `Human` -We use `ThreadPool::new` to create a new thread pool with a configurable number -of threads, in this case four [1]. Then, in the `for` loop, `pool.execute` has -a similar interface as `thread::spawn` in that it takes a closure the pool -should run for each stream [2]. We need to implement `pool.execute` so it takes -the closure and gives it to a thread in the pool to run. This code won’t yet -compile, but we’ll try so that the compiler can guide us in how to fix it. +Running this code will print `*waving arms furiously*`, showing that Rust +called the `fly` method implemented on `Human` directly. -#### Building ThreadPool Using Compiler-Driven Development +To call the `fly` methods from either the `Pilot` trait or the `Wizard` trait, +we need to use more explicit syntax to specify which `fly` method we mean. +Listing 19-18 demonstrates this syntax. -Make the changes in Listing 20-12 to *src/main.rs*, and then let’s use the -compiler errors from `cargo check` to drive our development. Here is the first -error we get: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -error[E0433]: failed to resolve: use of undeclared type `ThreadPool` - --> src/main.rs:11:16 - | -11 | let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - | ^^^^^^^^^^ use of undeclared type `ThreadPool` +fn main() { + let person = Human; + Pilot::fly(&person); + Wizard::fly(&person); + person.fly(); +} ``` -Great! This error tells us we need a `ThreadPool` type or module, so we’ll -build one now. Our `ThreadPool` implementation will be independent of the kind -of work our web server is doing. So let’s switch the `hello` crate from a -binary crate to a library crate to hold our `ThreadPool` implementation. After -we change to a library crate, we could also use the separate thread pool -library for any work we want to do using a thread pool, not just for serving -web requests. +Listing 19-18: Specifying which trait’s `fly` method we want to call -Create a *src/lib.rs* file that contains the following, which is the simplest -definition of a `ThreadPool` struct that we can have for now: +Specifying the trait name before the method name clarifies to Rust which +implementation of `fly` we want to call. We could also write +`Human::fly(&person)`, which is equivalent to the `person.fly()` that we used +in Listing 19-18, but this is a bit longer to write if we don’t need to +disambiguate. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Running this code prints the following: ``` -pub struct ThreadPool; +This is your captain speaking. +Up! +*waving arms furiously* ``` -Then edit the *main.rs* file to bring `ThreadPool` into scope from the library -crate by adding the following code to the top of *src/main.rs*: +Because the `fly` method takes a `self` parameter, if we had two *types* that +both implement one *trait*, Rust could figure out which implementation of a +trait to use based on the type of `self`. + +However, associated functions that are not methods don’t have a `self` +parameter. When there are multiple types or traits that define non-method +functions with the same function name, Rust doesn’t always know which type you +mean unless you use fully qualified syntax. For example, in Listing 19-19 we +create a trait for an animal shelter that wants to name all baby dogs Spot. We +make an `Animal` trait with an associated non-method function `baby_name`. The +`Animal` trait is implemented for the struct `Dog`, on which we also provide an +associated non-method function `baby_name` directly. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use hello::ThreadPool; +trait Animal { + fn baby_name() -> String; +} + +struct Dog; + +impl Dog { + fn baby_name() -> String { + String::from("Spot") + } +} + +impl Animal for Dog { + fn baby_name() -> String { + String::from("puppy") + } +} + +fn main() { + println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Dog::baby_name()); +} ``` -This code still won’t work, but let’s check it again to get the next error that -we need to address: +Listing 19-19: A trait with an associated function and a type with an +associated function of the same name that also implements the trait + +We implement the code for naming all puppies Spot in the `baby_name` associated +function that is defined on `Dog`. The `Dog` type also implements the trait +`Animal`, which describes characteristics that all animals have. Baby dogs are +called puppies, and that is expressed in the implementation of the `Animal` +trait on `Dog` in the `baby_name` function associated with the `Animal` trait. + +In `main`, we call the `Dog::baby_name` function, which calls the associated +function defined on `Dog` directly. This code prints the following: ``` -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -error[E0599]: no function or associated item named `new` found for struct -`ThreadPool` in the current scope - --> src/main.rs:12:28 - | -12 | let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - | ^^^ function or associated item not found in -`ThreadPool` +A baby dog is called a Spot ``` -This error indicates that next we need to create an associated function named -`new` for `ThreadPool`. We also know that `new` needs to have one parameter -that can accept `4` as an argument and should return a `ThreadPool` instance. -Let’s implement the simplest `new` function that will have those -characteristics: +This output isn’t what we wanted. We want to call the `baby_name` function that +is part of the `Animal` trait that we implemented on `Dog` so the code prints +`A baby dog is called a puppy`. The technique of specifying the trait name that +we used in Listing 19-18 doesn’t help here; if we change `main` to the code in +Listing 19-20, we’ll get a compilation error. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -pub struct ThreadPool; - -impl ThreadPool { - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - ThreadPool - } +fn main() { + println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Animal::baby_name()); } ``` -We chose `usize` as the type of the `size` parameter because we know that a -negative number of threads doesn’t make any sense. We also know we’ll use this -`4` as the number of elements in a collection of threads, which is what the -`usize` type is for, as discussed in “Integer Types” on page XX. +Listing 19-20: Attempting to call the `baby_name` function from the `Animal` +trait, but Rust doesn’t know which implementation to use -Let’s check the code again: +Because `Animal::baby_name` doesn’t have a `self` parameter, and there could be +other types that implement the `Animal` trait, Rust can’t figure out which +implementation of `Animal::baby_name` we want. We’ll get this compiler error: ``` -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -error[E0599]: no method named `execute` found for struct `ThreadPool` in the -current scope - --> src/main.rs:17:14 +error[E0283]: type annotations needed + --> src/main.rs:20:43 + | +20 | println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Animal::baby_name()); + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ cannot infer +type | -17 | pool.execute(|| { - | ^^^^^^^ method not found in `ThreadPool` -``` - -Now the error occurs because we don’t have an `execute` method on `ThreadPool`. -Recall from “Creating a Finite Number of Threads” on page XX that we decided -our thread pool should have an interface similar to `thread::spawn`. In -addition, we’ll implement the `execute` function so it takes the closure it’s -given and gives it to an idle thread in the pool to run. - -We’ll define the `execute` method on `ThreadPool` to take a closure as a -parameter. Recall from “Moving Captured Values Out of Closures and the Fn -Traits” on page XX that we can take closures as parameters with three different -traits: `Fn`, `FnMut`, and `FnOnce`. We need to decide which kind of closure to -use here. We know we’ll end up doing something similar to the standard library -`thread::spawn` implementation, so we can look at what bounds the signature of -`thread::spawn` has on its parameter. The documentation shows us the following: - -``` -pub fn spawn(f: F) -> JoinHandle - where - F: FnOnce() -> T, - F: Send + 'static, - T: Send + 'static, -``` - -The `F` type parameter is the one we’re concerned with here; the `T` type -parameter is related to the return value, and we’re not concerned with that. We -can see that `spawn` uses `FnOnce` as the trait bound on `F`. This is probably -what we want as well, because we’ll eventually pass the argument we get in -`execute` to `spawn`. We can be further confident that `FnOnce` is the trait we -want to use because the thread for running a request will only execute that -request’s closure one time, which matches the `Once` in `FnOnce`. - -The `F` type parameter also has the trait bound `Send` and the lifetime bound -`'static`, which are useful in our situation: we need `Send` to transfer the -closure from one thread to another and `'static` because we don’t know how long -the thread will take to execute. Let’s create an `execute` method on -`ThreadPool` that will take a generic parameter of type `F` with these bounds: + = note: cannot satisfy `_: Animal` +``` -Filename: src/lib.rs +To disambiguate and tell Rust that we want to use the implementation of +`Animal` for `Dog` as opposed to the implementation of `Animal` for some other +type, we need to use fully qualified syntax. Listing 19-21 demonstrates how to +use fully qualified syntax. + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -impl ThreadPool { - --snip-- - pub fn execute(&self, f: F) - where - F: FnOnce() 1 + Send + 'static, - { - } +fn main() { + println!( + "A baby dog is called a {}", + ::baby_name() + ); } ``` -We still use the `()` after `FnOnce` [1] because this `FnOnce` represents a -closure that takes no parameters and returns the unit type `()`. Just like -function definitions, the return type can be omitted from the signature, but -even if we have no parameters, we still need the parentheses. +Listing 19-21: Using fully qualified syntax to specify that we want to call the +`baby_name` function from the `Animal` trait as implemented on `Dog` -Again, this is the simplest implementation of the `execute` method: it does -nothing, but we’re only trying to make our code compile. Let’s check it again: +We’re providing Rust with a type annotation within the angle brackets, which +indicates we want to call the `baby_name` method from the `Animal` trait as +implemented on `Dog` by saying that we want to treat the `Dog` type as an +`Animal` for this function call. This code will now print what we want: ``` -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.24s +A baby dog is called a puppy ``` -It compiles! But note that if you try `cargo run` and make a request in the -browser, you’ll see the errors in the browser that we saw at the beginning of -the chapter. Our library isn’t actually calling the closure passed to `execute` -yet! +In general, fully qualified syntax is defined as follows: -> Note: A saying you might hear about languages with strict compilers, such as -Haskell and Rust, is “if the code compiles, it works.” But this saying is not -universally true. Our project compiles, but it does absolutely nothing! If we -were building a real, complete project, this would be a good time to start -writing unit tests to check that the code compiles *and* has the behavior we -want. +``` +::function(receiver_if_method, next_arg, ...); +``` -#### Validating the Number of Threads in new +For associated functions that aren’t methods, there would not be a `receiver`: +there would only be the list of other arguments. You could use fully qualified +syntax everywhere that you call functions or methods. However, you’re allowed +to omit any part of this syntax that Rust can figure out from other information +in the program. You only need to use this more verbose syntax in cases where +there are multiple implementations that use the same name and Rust needs help +to identify which implementation you want to call. -We aren’t doing anything with the parameters to `new` and `execute`. Let’s -implement the bodies of these functions with the behavior we want. To start, -let’s think about `new`. Earlier we chose an unsigned type for the `size` -parameter because a pool with a negative number of threads makes no sense. -However, a pool with zero threads also makes no sense, yet zero is a perfectly -valid `usize`. We’ll add code to check that `size` is greater than zero before -we return a `ThreadPool` instance and have the program panic if it receives a -zero by using the `assert!` macro, as shown in Listing 20-13. +### Using Supertraits -Filename: src/lib.rs +Sometimes you might write a trait definition that depends on another trait: for +a type to implement the first trait, you want to require that type to also +implement the second trait. You would do this so that your trait definition can +make use of the associated items of the second trait. The trait your trait +definition is relying on is called a *supertrait* of your trait. +For example, let’s say we want to make an `OutlinePrint` trait with an +`outline_print` method that will print a given value formatted so that it’s +framed in asterisks. That is, given a `Point` struct that implements the +standard library trait `Display` to result in `(x, y)`, when we call +`outline_print` on a `Point` instance that has `1` for `x` and `3` for `y`, it +should print the following: + +``` +********** +* * +* (1, 3) * +* * +********** ``` -impl ThreadPool { - /// Create a new ThreadPool. - /// - /// The size is the number of threads in the pool. - /// - 1 /// # Panics - /// - /// The `new` function will panic if the size is zero. - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - 2 assert!(size > 0); - ThreadPool - } +In the implementation of the `outline_print` method, we want to use the +`Display` trait’s functionality. Therefore, we need to specify that the +`OutlinePrint` trait will work only for types that also implement `Display` and +provide the functionality that `OutlinePrint` needs. We can do that in the +trait definition by specifying `OutlinePrint: Display`. This technique is +similar to adding a trait bound to the trait. Listing 19-22 shows an +implementation of the `OutlinePrint` trait. - --snip-- +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use std::fmt; + +trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display { + fn outline_print(&self) { + let output = self.to_string(); + let len = output.len(); + println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4)); + println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2)); + println!("* {} *", output); + println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2)); + println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4)); + } } ``` -Listing 20-13: Implementing `ThreadPool::new` to panic if `size` is zero +Listing 19-22: Implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait that requires the +functionality from `Display` -We’ve also added some documentation for our `ThreadPool` with doc comments. -Note that we followed good documentation practices by adding a section that -calls out the situations in which our function can panic [1], as discussed in -Chapter 14. Try running `cargo doc --open` and clicking the `ThreadPool` struct -to see what the generated docs for `new` look like! +Because we’ve specified that `OutlinePrint` requires the `Display` trait, we +can use the `to_string` function that is automatically implemented for any type +that implements `Display`. If we tried to use `to_string` without adding a +colon and specifying the `Display` trait after the trait name, we’d get an +error saying that no method named `to_string` was found for the type `&Self` in +the current scope. -Instead of adding the `assert!` macro as we’ve done here [2], we could change -`new` into `build` and return a `Result` like we did with `Config::build` in -the I/O project in Listing 12-9. But we’ve decided in this case that trying to -create a thread pool without any threads should be an unrecoverable error. If -you’re feeling ambitious, try to write a function named `build` with the -following signature to compare with the `new` function: +Let’s see what happens when we try to implement `OutlinePrint` on a type that +doesn’t implement `Display`, such as the `Point` struct: + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -pub fn build( - size: usize -) -> Result { -``` +struct Point { + x: i32, + y: i32, +} -#### Creating Space to Store the Threads +impl OutlinePrint for Point {} +``` -Now that we have a way to know we have a valid number of threads to store in -the pool, we can create those threads and store them in the `ThreadPool` struct -before returning the struct. But how do we “store” a thread? Let’s take another -look at the `thread::spawn` signature: +We get an error saying that `Display` is required but not implemented: ``` -pub fn spawn(f: F) -> JoinHandle - where - F: FnOnce() -> T, - F: Send + 'static, - T: Send + 'static, +error[E0277]: `Point` doesn't implement `std::fmt::Display` + --> src/main.rs:20:6 + | +20 | impl OutlinePrint for Point {} + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ `Point` cannot be formatted with the default formatter + | + = help: the trait `std::fmt::Display` is not implemented for `Point` + = note: in format strings you may be able to use `{:?}` (or {:#?} for +pretty-print) instead +note: required by a bound in `OutlinePrint` + --> src/main.rs:3:21 + | +3 | trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ required by this bound in `OutlinePrint` ``` -The `spawn` function returns a `JoinHandle`, where `T` is the type that the -closure returns. Let’s try using `JoinHandle` too and see what happens. In our -case, the closures we’re passing to the thread pool will handle the connection -and not return anything, so `T` will be the unit type `()`. - -The code in Listing 20-14 will compile but doesn’t create any threads yet. -We’ve changed the definition of `ThreadPool` to hold a vector of -`thread::JoinHandle<()>` instances, initialized the vector with a capacity of -`size`, set up a `for` loop that will run some code to create the threads, and -returned a `ThreadPool` instance containing them. +To fix this, we implement `Display` on `Point` and satisfy the constraint that +`OutlinePrint` requires, like so: -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -1 use std::thread; +use std::fmt; -pub struct ThreadPool { - 2 threads: Vec>, +impl fmt::Display for Point { + fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result { + write!(f, "({}, {})", self.x, self.y) + } } +``` -impl ThreadPool { - --snip-- - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - assert!(size > 0); +Then, implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait on `Point` will compile +successfully, and we can call `outline_print` on a `Point` instance to display +it within an outline of asterisks. - 3 let mut threads = Vec::with_capacity(size); +### Using the Newtype Pattern to Implement External Traits - for _ in 0..size { - // create some threads and store them in the vector - } +In “Implementing a Trait on a Type” on page XX, we mentioned the orphan rule +that states we’re only allowed to implement a trait on a type if either the +trait or the type, or both, are local to our crate. It’s possible to get around +this restriction using the *newtype pattern*, which involves creating a new +type in a tuple struct. (We covered tuple structs in “Using Tuple Structs +Without Named Fields to Create Different Types” on page XX.) The tuple struct +will have one field and be a thin wrapper around the type for which we want to +implement a trait. Then the wrapper type is local to our crate, and we can +implement the trait on the wrapper. *Newtype* is a term that originates from +the Haskell programming language. There is no runtime performance penalty for +using this pattern, and the wrapper type is elided at compile time. + +As an example, let’s say we want to implement `Display` on `Vec`, which the +orphan rule prevents us from doing directly because the `Display` trait and the +`Vec` type are defined outside our crate. We can make a `Wrapper` struct +that holds an instance of `Vec`; then we can implement `Display` on +`Wrapper` and use the `Vec` value, as shown in Listing 19-23. + +Filename: src/main.rs - ThreadPool { threads } +``` +use std::fmt; + +struct Wrapper(Vec); + +impl fmt::Display for Wrapper { + fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result { + write!(f, "[{}]", self.0.join(", ")) } - --snip-- +} + +fn main() { + let w = Wrapper(vec![ + String::from("hello"), + String::from("world"), + ]); + println!("w = {w}"); } ``` -Listing 20-14: Creating a vector for `ThreadPool` to hold the threads +Listing 19-23: Creating a `Wrapper` type around `Vec` to implement +`Display` -We’ve brought `std::thread` into scope in the library crate [1] because we’re -using `thread::JoinHandle` as the type of the items in the vector in -`ThreadPool` [2]. +The implementation of `Display` uses `self.0` to access the inner `Vec` +because `Wrapper` is a tuple struct and `Vec` is the item at index 0 in the +tuple. Then we can use the functionality of the `Display` type on `Wrapper`. -Once a valid size is received, our `ThreadPool` creates a new vector that can -hold `size` items [3]. The `with_capacity` function performs the same task as -`Vec::new` but with an important difference: it pre-allocates space in the -vector. Because we know we need to store `size` elements in the vector, doing -this allocation up front is slightly more efficient than using `Vec::new`, -which resizes itself as elements are inserted. +The downside of using this technique is that `Wrapper` is a new type, so it +doesn’t have the methods of the value it’s holding. We would have to implement +all the methods of `Vec` directly on `Wrapper` such that the methods +delegate to `self.0`, which would allow us to treat `Wrapper` exactly like a +`Vec`. If we wanted the new type to have every method the inner type has, +implementing the `Deref` trait on the `Wrapper` to return the inner type would +be a solution (we discussed implementing the `Deref` trait in “Treating Smart +Pointers Like Regular References with Deref” on page XX). If we didn’t want the +`Wrapper` type to have all the methods of the inner type—for example, to +restrict the `Wrapper` type’s behavior—we would have to implement just the +methods we do want manually. -When you run `cargo check` again, it should succeed. +This newtype pattern is also useful even when traits are not involved. Let’s +switch focus and look at some advanced ways to interact with Rust’s type system. -#### Sending Code from the ThreadPool to a Thread +## Advanced Types -We left a comment in the `for` loop in Listing 20-14 regarding the creation of -threads. Here, we’ll look at how we actually create threads. The standard -library provides `thread::spawn` as a way to create threads, and -`thread::spawn` expects to get some code the thread should run as soon as the -thread is created. However, in our case, we want to create the threads and have -them *wait* for code that we’ll send later. The standard library’s -implementation of threads doesn’t include any way to do that; we have to -implement it manually. +The Rust type system has some features that we’ve so far mentioned but haven’t +yet discussed. We’ll start by discussing newtypes in general as we examine why +newtypes are useful as types. Then we’ll move on to type aliases, a feature +similar to newtypes but with slightly different semantics. We’ll also discuss +the `!` type and dynamically sized types. -We’ll implement this behavior by introducing a new data structure between the -`ThreadPool` and the threads that will manage this new behavior. We’ll call -this data structure *Worker*, which is a common term in pooling -implementations. The `Worker` picks up code that needs to be run and runs the -code in its thread. +### Using the Newtype Pattern for Type Safety and Abstraction -Think of people working in the kitchen at a restaurant: the workers wait until -orders come in from customers, and then they’re responsible for taking those -orders and filling them. +> Note: This section assumes you’ve read the earlier section “Using the Newtype +Pattern to Implement External Traits” on page XX. -Instead of storing a vector of `JoinHandle<()>` instances in the thread pool, -we’ll store instances of the `Worker` struct. Each `Worker` will store a single -`JoinHandle<()>` instance. Then we’ll implement a method on `Worker` that will -take a closure of code to run and send it to the already running thread for -execution. We’ll also give each `Worker` an `id` so we can distinguish between -the different instances of `Worker` in the pool when logging or debugging. +The newtype pattern is also useful for tasks beyond those we’ve discussed so +far, including statically enforcing that values are never confused and +indicating the units of a value. You saw an example of using newtypes to +indicate units in Listing 19-15: recall that the `Millimeters` and `Meters` +structs wrapped `u32` values in a newtype. If we wrote a function with a +parameter of type `Millimeters`, we wouldn’t be able to compile a program that +accidentally tried to call that function with a value of type `Meters` or a +plain `u32`. -Here is the new process that will happen when we create a `ThreadPool`. We’ll -implement the code that sends the closure to the thread after we have `Worker` -set up in this way: +We can also use the newtype pattern to abstract away some implementation +details of a type: the new type can expose a public API that is different from +the API of the private inner type. -1. Define a `Worker` struct that holds an `id` and a `JoinHandle<()>`. -1. Change `ThreadPool` to hold a vector of `Worker` instances. -1. Define a `Worker::new` function that takes an `id` number and returns a -`Worker` instance that holds the `id` and a thread spawned with an empty -closure. -1. In `ThreadPool::new`, use the `for` loop counter to generate an `id`, create -a new `Worker` with that `id`, and store the `Worker` in the vector. +Newtypes can also hide internal implementation. For example, we could provide a +`People` type to wrap a `HashMap` that stores a person’s ID +associated with their name. Code using `People` would only interact with the +public API we provide, such as a method to add a name string to the `People` +collection; that code wouldn’t need to know that we assign an `i32` ID to names +internally. The newtype pattern is a lightweight way to achieve encapsulation +to hide implementation details, which we discussed in “Encapsulation That Hides +Implementation Details” on page XX. -If you’re up for a challenge, try implementing these changes on your own before -looking at the code in Listing 20-15. +### Creating Type Synonyms with Type Aliases -Ready? Here is Listing 20-15 with one way to make the preceding modifications. +Rust provides the ability to declare a *type alias* to give an existing type +another name. For this we use the `type` keyword. For example, we can create +the alias `Kilometers` to `i32` like so: -Filename: src/lib.rs +``` +type Kilometers = i32; +``` + +Now the alias `Kilometers` is a *synonym* for `i32`; unlike the `Millimeters` +and `Meters` types we created in Listing 19-15, `Kilometers` is not a separate, +new type. Values that have the type `Kilometers` will be treated the same as +values of type `i32`: ``` -use std::thread; +type Kilometers = i32; -pub struct ThreadPool { - 1 workers: Vec, -} +let x: i32 = 5; +let y: Kilometers = 5; -impl ThreadPool { - --snip-- - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - assert!(size > 0); +println!("x + y = {}", x + y); +``` - let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); +Because `Kilometers` and `i32` are the same type, we can add values of both +types and we can pass `Kilometers` values to functions that take `i32` +parameters. However, using this method, we don’t get the type-checking benefits +that we get from the newtype pattern discussed earlier. In other words, if we +mix up `Kilometers` and `i32` values somewhere, the compiler will not give us +an error. - 2 for id in 0..size { - 3 workers.push(Worker::new(id)); - } +The main use case for type synonyms is to reduce repetition. For example, we +might have a lengthy type like this: - ThreadPool { workers } - } +``` +Box +``` + +Writing this lengthy type in function signatures and as type annotations all +over the code can be tiresome and error prone. Imagine having a project full of +code like that in Listing 19-24. + +``` +let f: Box = Box::new(|| { + println!("hi"); +}); + +fn takes_long_type(f: Box) { --snip-- } -4 struct Worker { - id: usize, - thread: thread::JoinHandle<()>, +fn returns_long_type() -> Box { + --snip-- } +``` -impl Worker { - 5 fn new(id: usize) -> Worker { - 6 let thread = thread::spawn(|| {}); +Listing 19-24: Using a long type in many places + +A type alias makes this code more manageable by reducing the repetition. In +Listing 19-25, we’ve introduced an alias named `Thunk` for the verbose type and +can replace all uses of the type with the shorter alias `Thunk`. - Worker { 7 id, 8 thread } - } -} ``` +type Thunk = Box; -Listing 20-15: Modifying `ThreadPool` to hold `Worker` instances instead of -holding threads directly +let f: Thunk = Box::new(|| println!("hi")); -We’ve changed the name of the field on `ThreadPool` from `threads` to `workers` -because it’s now holding `Worker` instances instead of `JoinHandle<()>` -instances [1]. We use the counter in the `for` loop [2] as an argument to -`Worker::new`, and we store each new `Worker` in the vector named `workers` [3]. +fn takes_long_type(f: Thunk) { + --snip-- +} -External code (like our server in *src/main.rs*) doesn’t need to know the -implementation details regarding using a `Worker` struct within `ThreadPool`, -so we make the `Worker` struct [4] and its `new` function [5] private. The -`Worker::new` function uses the `id` we give it [7] and stores a -`JoinHandle<()>` instance [8] that is created by spawning a new thread using an -empty closure [6]. +fn returns_long_type() -> Thunk { + --snip-- +} +``` -> Note: If the operating system can’t create a thread because there aren’t -enough system resources, `thread::spawn` will panic. That will cause our whole -server to panic, even though the creation of some threads might succeed. For -simplicity’s sake, this behavior is fine, but in a production thread pool -implementation, you’d likely want to use `std::thread::Builder` and its `spawn` -method that returns `Result` instead. +Listing 19-25: Introducing a type alias `Thunk` to reduce repetition -This code will compile and will store the number of `Worker` instances we -specified as an argument to `ThreadPool::new`. But we’re *still* not processing -the closure that we get in `execute`. Let’s look at how to do that next. +This code is much easier to read and write! Choosing a meaningful name for a +type alias can help communicate your intent as well (*thunk* is a word for code +to be evaluated at a later time, so it’s an appropriate name for a closure that +gets stored). -#### Sending Requests to Threads via Channels +Type aliases are also commonly used with the `Result` type for reducing +repetition. Consider the `std::io` module in the standard library. I/O +operations often return a `Result` to handle situations when operations +fail to work. This library has a `std::io::Error` struct that represents all +possible I/O errors. Many of the functions in `std::io` will be returning +`Result` where the `E` is `std::io::Error`, such as these functions in +the `Write` trait: -The next problem we’ll tackle is that the closures given to `thread::spawn` do -absolutely nothing. Currently, we get the closure we want to execute in the -`execute` method. But we need to give `thread::spawn` a closure to run when we -create each `Worker` during the creation of the `ThreadPool`. +``` +use std::fmt; +use std::io::Error; -We want the `Worker` structs that we just created to fetch the code to run from -a queue held in the `ThreadPool` and send that code to its thread to run. +pub trait Write { + fn write(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result; + fn flush(&mut self) -> Result<(), Error>; -The channels we learned about in Chapter 16—a simple way to communicate between -two threads—would be perfect for this use case. We’ll use a channel to function -as the queue of jobs, and `execute` will send a job from the `ThreadPool` to -the `Worker` instances, which will send the job to its thread. Here is the plan: + fn write_all(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<(), Error>; + fn write_fmt( + &mut self, + fmt: fmt::Arguments, + ) -> Result<(), Error>; +} +``` -1. The `ThreadPool` will create a channel and hold on to the sender. -1. Each `Worker` will hold on to the receiver. -1. We’ll create a new `Job` struct that will hold the closures we want to send -down the channel. -1. The `execute` method will send the job it wants to execute through the -sender. -1. In its thread, the `Worker` will loop over its receiver and execute the -closures of any jobs it receives. +The `Result<..., Error>` is repeated a lot. As such, `std::io` has this type +alias declaration: -Let’s start by creating a channel in `ThreadPool::new` and holding the sender -in the `ThreadPool` instance, as shown in Listing 20-16. The `Job` struct -doesn’t hold anything for now but will be the type of item we’re sending down -the channel. +``` +type Result = std::result::Result; +``` -Filename: src/lib.rs +Because this declaration is in the `std::io` module, we can use the fully +qualified alias `std::io::Result`; that is, a `Result` with the `E` +filled in as `std::io::Error`. The `Write` trait function signatures end up +looking like this: ``` -use std::{sync::mpsc, thread}; +pub trait Write { + fn write(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result; + fn flush(&mut self) -> Result<()>; -pub struct ThreadPool { - workers: Vec, - sender: mpsc::Sender, + fn write_all(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<()>; + fn write_fmt(&mut self, fmt: fmt::Arguments) -> Result<()>; } +``` -struct Job; - -impl ThreadPool { - --snip-- - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - assert!(size > 0); - - 1 let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); +The type alias helps in two ways: it makes code easier to write *and* it gives +us a consistent interface across all of `std::io`. Because it’s an alias, it’s +just another `Result`, which means we can use any methods that work on +`Result` with it, as well as special syntax like the `?` operator. - let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); +### The Never Type That Never Returns - for id in 0..size { - workers.push(Worker::new(id)); - } +Rust has a special type named `!` that’s known in type theory lingo as the +*empty type* because it has no values. We prefer to call it the *never type* +because it stands in the place of the return type when a function will never +return. Here is an example: - ThreadPool { workers, 2 sender } - } +``` +fn bar() -> ! { --snip-- } ``` -Listing 20-16: Modifying `ThreadPool` to store the sender of a channel that -transmits `Job` instances +This code is read as “the function `bar` returns never.” Functions that return +never are called *diverging functions*. We can’t create values of the type `!`, +so `bar` can never possibly return. + +But what use is a type you can never create values for? Recall the code from +Listing 2-5, part of the number-guessing game; we’ve reproduced a bit of it +here in Listing 19-26. -In `ThreadPool::new`, we create our new channel [1] and have the pool hold the -sender [2]. This will successfully compile. +``` +let guess: u32 = match guess.trim().parse() { + Ok(num) => num, + Err(_) => continue, +}; +``` -Let’s try passing a receiver of the channel into each `Worker` as the thread -pool creates the channel. We know we want to use the receiver in the thread -that the `Worker` instances spawn, so we’ll reference the `receiver` parameter -in the closure. The code in Listing 20-17 won’t quite compile yet. +Listing 19-26: A `match` with an arm that ends in `continue` -Filename: src/lib.rs +At the time, we skipped over some details in this code. In “The match Control +Flow Construct” on page XX, we discussed that `match` arms must all return the +same type. So, for example, the following code doesn’t work: ``` -impl ThreadPool { - --snip-- - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - assert!(size > 0); +let guess = match guess.trim().parse() { + Ok(_) => 5, + Err(_) => "hello", +}; +``` - let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); +The type of `guess` in this code would have to be an integer *and* a string, +and Rust requires that `guess` have only one type. So what does `continue` +return? How were we allowed to return a `u32` from one arm and have another arm +that ends with `continue` in Listing 19-26? - let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); +As you might have guessed, `continue` has a `!` value. That is, when Rust +computes the type of `guess`, it looks at both match arms, the former with a +value of `u32` and the latter with a `!` value. Because `!` can never have a +value, Rust decides that the type of `guess` is `u32`. - for id in 0..size { - 1 workers.push(Worker::new(id, receiver)); - } +The formal way of describing this behavior is that expressions of type `!` can +be coerced into any other type. We’re allowed to end this `match` arm with +`continue` because `continue` doesn’t return a value; instead, it moves control +back to the top of the loop, so in the `Err` case, we never assign a value to +`guess`. + +The never type is useful with the `panic!` macro as well. Recall the `unwrap` +function that we call on `Option` values to produce a value or panic with +this definition: - ThreadPool { workers, sender } +``` +impl Option { + pub fn unwrap(self) -> T { + match self { + Some(val) => val, + None => panic!( + "called `Option::unwrap()` on a `None` value" + ), + } } - --snip-- } +``` ---snip-- +In this code, the same thing happens as in the `match` in Listing 19-26: Rust +sees that `val` has the type `T` and `panic!` has the type `!`, so the result +of the overall `match` expression is `T`. This code works because `panic!` +doesn’t produce a value; it ends the program. In the `None` case, we won’t be +returning a value from `unwrap`, so this code is valid. -impl Worker { - fn new(id: usize, receiver: mpsc::Receiver) -> Worker { - let thread = thread::spawn(|| { - 2 receiver; - }); +One final expression that has the type `!` is a `loop`: - Worker { id, thread } - } -} ``` +print!("forever "); -Listing 20-17: Passing the receiver to each `Worker` +loop { + print!("and ever "); +} +``` -We’ve made some small and straightforward changes: we pass the receiver into -`Worker::new` [1], and then we use it inside the closure [2]. +Here, the loop never ends, so `!` is the value of the expression. However, this +wouldn’t be true if we included a `break`, because the loop would terminate +when it got to the `break`. + +### Dynamically Sized Types and the Sized Trait + +Rust needs to know certain details about its types, such as how much space to +allocate for a value of a particular type. This leaves one corner of its type +system a little confusing at first: the concept of *dynamically sized types*. +Sometimes referred to as *DSTs* or *unsized types*, these types let us write +code using values whose size we can know only at runtime. + +Let’s dig into the details of a dynamically sized type called `str`, which +we’ve been using throughout the book. That’s right, not `&str`, but `str` on +its own, is a DST. We can’t know how long the string is until runtime, meaning +we can’t create a variable of type `str`, nor can we take an argument of type +`str`. Consider the following code, which does not work: + +``` +let s1: str = "Hello there!"; +let s2: str = "How's it going?"; +``` + +Rust needs to know how much memory to allocate for any value of a particular +type, and all values of a type must use the same amount of memory. If Rust +allowed us to write this code, these two `str` values would need to take up the +same amount of space. But they have different lengths: `s1` needs 12 bytes of +storage and `s2` needs 15. This is why it’s not possible to create a variable +holding a dynamically sized type. + +So what do we do? In this case, you already know the answer: we make the types +of `s1` and `s2` a `&str` rather than a `str`. Recall from “String Slices” on +page XX that the slice data structure just stores the starting position and the +length of the slice. So, although a `&T` is a single value that stores the +memory address of where the `T` is located, a `&str` is *two* values: the +address of the `str` and its length. As such, we can know the size of a `&str` +value at compile time: it’s twice the length of a `usize`. That is, we always +know the size of a `&str`, no matter how long the string it refers to is. In +general, this is the way in which dynamically sized types are used in Rust: +they have an extra bit of metadata that stores the size of the dynamic +information. The golden rule of dynamically sized types is that we must always +put values of dynamically sized types behind a pointer of some kind. + +We can combine `str` with all kinds of pointers: for example, `Box` or +`Rc`. In fact, you’ve seen this before but with a different dynamically +sized type: traits. Every trait is a dynamically sized type we can refer to by +using the name of the trait. In “Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of +Different Types” on page XX, we mentioned that to use traits as trait objects, +we must put them behind a pointer, such as `&dyn Trait` or `Box` +(`Rc` would work too). + +To work with DSTs, Rust provides the `Sized` trait to determine whether or not +a type’s size is known at compile time. This trait is automatically implemented +for everything whose size is known at compile time. In addition, Rust +implicitly adds a bound on `Sized` to every generic function. That is, a +generic function definition like this: + +``` +fn generic(t: T) { + --snip-- +} +``` -When we try to check this code, we get this error: +is actually treated as though we had written this: ``` -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -error[E0382]: use of moved value: `receiver` - --> src/lib.rs:26:42 - | -21 | let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); - | -------- move occurs because `receiver` has type -`std::sync::mpsc::Receiver`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait -... -26 | workers.push(Worker::new(id, receiver)); - | ^^^^^^^^ value moved here, in -previous iteration of loop -``` - -The code is trying to pass `receiver` to multiple `Worker` instances. This -won’t work, as you’ll recall from Chapter 16: the channel implementation that -Rust provides is multiple *producer*, single *consumer*. This means we can’t -just clone the consuming end of the channel to fix this code. We also don’t -want to send a message multiple times to multiple consumers; we want one list -of messages with multiple `Worker` instances such that each message gets -processed once. - -Additionally, taking a job off the channel queue involves mutating the -`receiver`, so the threads need a safe way to share and modify `receiver`; -otherwise, we might get race conditions (as covered in Chapter 16). - -Recall the thread-safe smart pointers discussed in Chapter 16: to share -ownership across multiple threads and allow the threads to mutate the value, we -need to use `Arc>`. The `Arc` type will let multiple `Worker` -instances own the receiver, and `Mutex` will ensure that only one `Worker` gets -a job from the receiver at a time. Listing 20-18 shows the changes we need to -make. +fn generic(t: T) { + --snip-- +} +``` -Filename: src/lib.rs +By default, generic functions will work only on types that have a known size at +compile time. However, you can use the following special syntax to relax this +restriction: ``` -use std::{ - sync::{mpsc, Arc, Mutex}, - thread, -}; ---snip-- - -impl ThreadPool { +fn generic(t: &T) { --snip-- - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - assert!(size > 0); +} +``` - let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); +A trait bound on `?Sized` means “`T` may or may not be `Sized`” and this +notation overrides the default that generic types must have a known size at +compile time. The `?Trait` syntax with this meaning is only available for +`Sized`, not any other traits. - 1 let receiver = Arc::new(Mutex::new(receiver)); +Also note that we switched the type of the `t` parameter from `T` to `&T`. +Because the type might not be `Sized`, we need to use it behind some kind of +pointer. In this case, we’ve chosen a reference. - let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); +Next, we’ll talk about functions and closures! - for id in 0..size { - workers.push( - Worker::new(id, Arc::clone(& 2 receiver)) - ); - } +## Advanced Functions and Closures - ThreadPool { workers, sender } - } +This section explores some advanced features related to functions and closures, +including function pointers and returning closures. - --snip-- +### Function Pointers + +We’ve talked about how to pass closures to functions; you can also pass regular +functions to functions! This technique is useful when you want to pass a +function you’ve already defined rather than defining a new closure. Functions +coerce to the type `fn` (with a lowercase *f*), not to be confused with the +`Fn` closure trait. The `fn` type is called a *function pointer*. Passing +functions with function pointers will allow you to use functions as arguments +to other functions. + +The syntax for specifying that a parameter is a function pointer is similar to +that of closures, as shown in Listing 19-27, where we’ve defined a function +`add_one` that adds 1 to its parameter. The function `do_twice` takes two +parameters: a function pointer to any function that takes an `i32` parameter +and returns an `i32`, and one `i32 value`. The `do_twice` function calls the +function `f` twice, passing it the `arg` value, then adds the two function call +results together. The `main` function calls `do_twice` with the arguments +`add_one` and `5`. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn add_one(x: i32) -> i32 { + x + 1 } ---snip-- +fn do_twice(f: fn(i32) -> i32, arg: i32) -> i32 { + f(arg) + f(arg) +} -impl Worker { - fn new( - id: usize, - receiver: Arc>>, - ) -> Worker { - --snip-- - } +fn main() { + let answer = do_twice(add_one, 5); + + println!("The answer is: {answer}"); } ``` -Listing 20-18: Sharing the receiver among the `Worker` instances using `Arc` -and `Mutex` +Listing 19-27: Using the `fn` type to accept a function pointer as an argument -In `ThreadPool::new`, we put the receiver in an `Arc` and a `Mutex` [1]. For -each new `Worker`, we clone the `Arc` to bump the reference count so the -`Worker` instances can share ownership of the receiver [2]. +This code prints `The answer is: 12`. We specify that the parameter `f` in +`do_twice` is an `fn` that takes one parameter of type `i32` and returns an +`i32`. We can then call `f` in the body of `do_twice`. In `main`, we can pass +the function name `add_one` as the first argument to `do_twice`. -With these changes, the code compiles! We’re getting there! +Unlike closures, `fn` is a type rather than a trait, so we specify `fn` as the +parameter type directly rather than declaring a generic type parameter with one +of the `Fn` traits as a trait bound. -#### Implementing the execute Method +Function pointers implement all three of the closure traits (`Fn`, `FnMut`, and +`FnOnce`), meaning you can always pass a function pointer as an argument for a +function that expects a closure. It’s best to write functions using a generic +type and one of the closure traits so your functions can accept either +functions or closures. -Let’s finally implement the `execute` method on `ThreadPool`. We’ll also change -`Job` from a struct to a type alias for a trait object that holds the type of -closure that `execute` receives. As discussed in “Creating Type Synonyms with -Type Aliases” on page XX, type aliases allow us to make long types shorter for -ease of use. Look at Listing 20-19. +That said, one example of where you would want to only accept `fn` and not +closures is when interfacing with external code that doesn’t have closures: C +functions can accept functions as arguments, but C doesn’t have closures. -Filename: src/lib.rs +As an example of where you could use either a closure defined inline or a named +function, let’s look at a use of the `map` method provided by the `Iterator` +trait in the standard library. To use the `map` function to turn a vector of +numbers into a vector of strings, we could use a closure, like this: ``` ---snip-- +let list_of_numbers = vec![1, 2, 3]; +let list_of_strings: Vec = list_of_numbers + .iter() + .map(|i| i.to_string()) + .collect(); +``` -type Job = Box; +Or we could name a function as the argument to `map` instead of the closure, +like this: -impl ThreadPool { - --snip-- +``` +let list_of_numbers = vec![1, 2, 3]; +let list_of_strings: Vec = list_of_numbers + .iter() + .map(ToString::to_string) + .collect(); +``` - pub fn execute(&self, f: F) - where - F: FnOnce() + Send + 'static, - { - 1 let job = Box::new(f); +Note that we must use the fully qualified syntax that we talked about in +“Advanced Traits” on page XX because there are multiple functions available +named `to_string`. - 2 self.sender.send(job).unwrap(); - } +Here, we’re using the `to_string` function defined in the `ToString` trait, +which the standard library has implemented for any type that implements +`Display`. + +Recall from “Enum Values” on page XX that the name of each enum variant that we +define also becomes an initializer function. We can use these initializer +functions as function pointers that implement the closure traits, which means +we can specify the initializer functions as arguments for methods that take +closures, like so: + +``` +enum Status { + Value(u32), + Stop, } ---snip-- +let list_of_statuses: Vec = (0u32..20) + .map(Status::Value) + .collect(); ``` -Listing 20-19: Creating a `Job` type alias for a `Box` that holds each closure -and then sending the job down the channel +Here, we create `Status::Value` instances using each `u32` value in the range +that `map` is called on by using the initializer function of `Status::Value`. +Some people prefer this style and some people prefer to use closures. They +compile to the same code, so use whichever style is clearer to you. -After creating a new `Job` instance using the closure we get in `execute` [1], -we send that job down the sending end of the channel [2]. We’re calling -`unwrap` on `send` for the case that sending fails. This might happen if, for -example, we stop all our threads from executing, meaning the receiving end has -stopped receiving new messages. At the moment, we can’t stop our threads from -executing: our threads continue executing as long as the pool exists. The -reason we use `unwrap` is that we know the failure case won’t happen, but the -compiler doesn’t know that. +### Returning Closures -But we’re not quite done yet! In the `Worker`, our closure being passed to -`thread::spawn` still only *references* the receiving end of the channel. -Instead, we need the closure to loop forever, asking the receiving end of the -channel for a job and running the job when it gets one. Let’s make the change -shown in Listing 20-20 to `Worker::new`. +Closures are represented by traits, which means you can’t return closures +directly. In most cases where you might want to return a trait, you can instead +use the concrete type that implements the trait as the return value of the +function. However, you can’t do that with closures because they don’t have a +concrete type that is returnable; you’re not allowed to use the function +pointer `fn` as a return type, for example. -Filename: src/lib.rs +The following code tries to return a closure directly, but it won’t compile: ``` ---snip-- +fn returns_closure() -> dyn Fn(i32) -> i32 { + |x| x + 1 +} +``` -impl Worker { - fn new( - id: usize, - receiver: Arc>>, - ) -> Worker { - let thread = thread::spawn(move || loop { - let job = receiver - 1 .lock() - 2 .unwrap() - 3 .recv() - 4 .unwrap(); +The compiler error is as follows: - println!("Worker {id} got a job; executing."); +``` +error[E0746]: return type cannot have an unboxed trait object + --> src/lib.rs:1:25 + | +1 | fn returns_closure() -> dyn Fn(i32) -> i32 { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ doesn't have a size known at +compile-time + | + = note: for information on `impl Trait`, see + +help: use `impl Fn(i32) -> i32` as the return type, as all return paths are of +type `[closure@src/lib.rs:2:5: 2:14]`, which implements `Fn(i32) -> i32` + | +1 | fn returns_closure() -> impl Fn(i32) -> i32 { + | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ +``` - job(); - }); +The error references the `Sized` trait again! Rust doesn’t know how much space +it will need to store the closure. We saw a solution to this problem earlier. +We can use a trait object: - Worker { id, thread } - } +``` +fn returns_closure() -> Box i32> { + Box::new(|x| x + 1) } ``` -Listing 20-20: Receiving and executing the jobs in the `Worker` instance’s -thread +This code will compile just fine. For more about trait objects, refer to “Using +Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types” on page XX. -Here, we first call `lock` on the `receiver` to acquire the mutex [1], and then -we call `unwrap` to panic on any errors [2]. Acquiring a lock might fail if the -mutex is in a *poisoned* state, which can happen if some other thread panicked -while holding the lock rather than releasing the lock. In this situation, -calling `unwrap` to have this thread panic is the correct action to take. Feel -free to change this `unwrap` to an `expect` with an error message that is -meaningful to you. +Next, let’s look at macros! -If we get the lock on the mutex, we call `recv` to receive a `Job` from the -channel [3]. A final `unwrap` moves past any errors here as well [4], which -might occur if the thread holding the sender has shut down, similar to how the -`send` method returns `Err` if the receiver shuts down. +## Macros -The call to `recv` blocks, so if there is no job yet, the current thread will -wait until a job becomes available. The `Mutex` ensures that only one -`Worker` thread at a time is trying to request a job. +We’ve used macros like `println!` throughout this book, but we haven’t fully +explored what a macro is and how it works. The term *macro* refers to a family +of features in Rust: *declarative* macros with `macro_rules!` and three kinds +of *procedural* macros: -Our thread pool is now in a working state! Give it a `cargo run` and make some -requests: +* Custom `#[derive]` macros that specify code added with the `derive` attribute +used on structs and enums +* Attribute-like macros that define custom attributes usable on any item +* Function-like macros that look like function calls but operate on the tokens +specified as their argument -``` -$ cargo run - Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -warning: field is never read: `workers` - --> src/lib.rs:7:5 - | -7 | workers: Vec, - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - | - = note: `#[warn(dead_code)]` on by default +We’ll talk about each of these in turn, but first, let’s look at why we even +need macros when we already have functions. -warning: field is never read: `id` - --> src/lib.rs:48:5 - | -48 | id: usize, - | ^^^^^^^^^ +### The Difference Between Macros and Functions -warning: field is never read: `thread` - --> src/lib.rs:49:5 - | -49 | thread: thread::JoinHandle<()>, - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -warning: `hello` (lib) generated 3 warnings - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.40s - Running `target/debug/hello` -Worker 0 got a job; executing. -Worker 2 got a job; executing. -Worker 1 got a job; executing. -Worker 3 got a job; executing. -Worker 0 got a job; executing. -Worker 2 got a job; executing. -Worker 1 got a job; executing. -Worker 3 got a job; executing. -Worker 0 got a job; executing. -Worker 2 got a job; executing. -``` - -Success! We now have a thread pool that executes connections asynchronously. -There are never more than four threads created, so our system won’t get -overloaded if the server receives a lot of requests. If we make a request to -*/sleep*, the server will be able to serve other requests by having another -thread run them. - -> Note: If you open */sleep* in multiple browser windows simultaneously, they -might load one at a time in five-second intervals. Some web browsers execute -multiple instances of the same request sequentially for caching reasons. This -limitation is not caused by our web server. - -After learning about the `while let` loop in Chapter 18, you might be wondering -why we didn’t write the `Worker` thread code as shown in Listing 20-21. +Fundamentally, macros are a way of writing code that writes other code, which +is known as *metaprogramming*. In Appendix C, we discuss the `derive` +attribute, which generates an implementation of various traits for you. We’ve +also used the `println!` and `vec!` macros throughout the book. All of these +macros *expand* to produce more code than the code you’ve written manually. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Metaprogramming is useful for reducing the amount of code you have to write and +maintain, which is also one of the roles of functions. However, macros have +some additional powers that functions don’t have. -``` ---snip-- +A function signature must declare the number and type of parameters the +function has. Macros, on the other hand, can take a variable number of +parameters: we can call `println!("hello")` with one argument or +`println!("hello {}", name)` with two arguments. Also, macros are expanded +before the compiler interprets the meaning of the code, so a macro can, for +example, implement a trait on a given type. A function can’t, because it gets +called at runtime and a trait needs to be implemented at compile time. -impl Worker { - fn new( - id: usize, - receiver: Arc>>, - ) -> Worker { - let thread = thread::spawn(move || { - while let Ok(job) = receiver.lock().unwrap().recv() { - println!("Worker {id} got a job; executing."); +The downside to implementing a macro instead of a function is that macro +definitions are more complex than function definitions because you’re writing +Rust code that writes Rust code. Due to this indirection, macro definitions are +generally more difficult to read, understand, and maintain than function +definitions. - job(); - } - }); +Another important difference between macros and functions is that you must +define macros or bring them into scope *before* you call them in a file, as +opposed to functions you can define anywhere and call anywhere. - Worker { id, thread } - } -} +### Declarative Macros with macro_rules! for General Metaprogramming + +The most widely used form of macros in Rust is the *declarative macro*. These +are also sometimes referred to as “macros by example,” “`macro_rules!` macros,” +or just plain “macros.” At their core, declarative macros allow you to write +something similar to a Rust `match` expression. As discussed in Chapter 6, +`match` expressions are control structures that take an expression, compare the +resultant value of the expression to patterns, and then run the code associated +with the matching pattern. Macros also compare a value to patterns that are +associated with particular code: in this situation, the value is the literal +Rust source code passed to the macro; the patterns are compared with the +structure of that source code; and the code associated with each pattern, when +matched, replaces the code passed to the macro. This all happens during +compilation. + +To define a macro, you use the `macro_rules!` construct. Let’s explore how to +use `macro_rules!` by looking at how the `vec!` macro is defined. Chapter 8 +covered how we can use the `vec!` macro to create a new vector with particular +values. For example, the following macro creates a new vector containing three +integers: + +``` +let v: Vec = vec![1, 2, 3]; ``` -Listing 20-21: An alternative implementation of `Worker::new` using `while let` +We could also use the `vec!` macro to make a vector of two integers or a vector +of five string slices. We wouldn’t be able to use a function to do the same +because we wouldn’t know the number or type of values up front. -This code compiles and runs but doesn’t result in the desired threading -behavior: a slow request will still cause other requests to wait to be -processed. The reason is somewhat subtle: the `Mutex` struct has no public -`unlock` method because the ownership of the lock is based on the lifetime of -the `MutexGuard` within the `LockResult>` that the `lock` -method returns. At compile time, the borrow checker can then enforce the rule -that a resource guarded by a `Mutex` cannot be accessed unless we hold the -lock. However, this implementation can also result in the lock being held -longer than intended if we aren’t mindful of the lifetime of the -`MutexGuard`. +Listing 19-28 shows a slightly simplified definition of the `vec!` macro. -The code in Listing 20-20 that uses `let job = -receiver.lock().unwrap().recv().unwrap();` works because with `let`, any -temporary values used in the expression on the right-hand side of the equal -sign are immediately dropped when the `let` statement ends. However, `while -let` (and `if let` and `match`) does not drop temporary values until the end of -the associated block. In Listing 20-21, the lock remains held for the duration -of the call to `job()`, meaning other `Worker` instances cannot receive jobs. +Filename: src/lib.rs -## Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup +``` +1 #[macro_export] +2 macro_rules! vec { + 3 ( $( $x:expr ),* ) => { + { + let mut temp_vec = Vec::new(); + 4 $( + 5 temp_vec.push(6 $x); + )* + 7 temp_vec + } + }; +} +``` + +Listing 19-28: A simplified version of the `vec!` macro definition + +> Note: The actual definition of the `vec!` macro in the standard library +includes code to pre-allocate the correct amount of memory up front. That code +is an optimization that we don’t include here, to make the example simpler. + +The `#[macro_export]` annotation [1] indicates that this macro should be made +available whenever the crate in which the macro is defined is brought into +scope. Without this annotation, the macro can’t be brought into scope. + +We then start the macro definition with `macro_rules!` and the name of the +macro we’re defining *without* the exclamation mark [2]. The name, in this case +`vec`, is followed by curly brackets denoting the body of the macro definition. + +The structure in the `vec!` body is similar to the structure of a `match` +expression. Here we have one arm with the pattern `( $( $x:expr ),* )`, +followed by `=>` and the block of code associated with this pattern [3]. If the +pattern matches, the associated block of code will be emitted. Given that this +is the only pattern in this macro, there is only one valid way to match; any +other pattern will result in an error. More complex macros will have more than +one arm. + +Valid pattern syntax in macro definitions is different from the pattern syntax +covered in Chapter 18 because macro patterns are matched against Rust code +structure rather than values. Let’s walk through what the pattern pieces in +Listing 19-28 mean; for the full macro pattern syntax, see the Rust Reference +at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/macros-by-example.html*. + +First we use a set of parentheses to encompass the whole pattern. We use a +dollar sign (`$`) to declare a variable in the macro system that will contain +the Rust code matching the pattern. The dollar sign makes it clear this is a +macro variable as opposed to a regular Rust variable. Next comes a set of +parentheses that captures values that match the pattern within the parentheses +for use in the replacement code. Within `$()` is `$x:expr`, which matches any +Rust expression and gives the expression the name `$x`. + +The comma following `$()` indicates that a literal comma separator character +could optionally appear after the code that matches the code in `$()`. The `*` +specifies that the pattern matches zero or more of whatever precedes the `*`. + +When we call this macro with `vec![1, 2, 3];`, the `$x` pattern matches three +times with the three expressions `1`, `2`, and `3`. + +Now let’s look at the pattern in the body of the code associated with this arm: +`temp_vec.push()` [5] within `$()* at [4] and [7] is generated for each part +that matches `$()` in the pattern zero or more times depending on how many +times the pattern matches. The `$x` [6] is replaced with each expression +matched. When we call this macro with `vec![1, 2, 3];`, the code generated that +replaces this macro call will be the following: + +``` +{ + let mut temp_vec = Vec::new(); + temp_vec.push(1); + temp_vec.push(2); + temp_vec.push(3); + temp_vec +} +``` + +We’ve defined a macro that can take any number of arguments of any type and can +generate code to create a vector containing the specified elements. -The code in Listing 20-20 is responding to requests asynchronously through the -use of a thread pool, as we intended. We get some warnings about the `workers`, -`id`, and `thread` fields that we’re not using in a direct way that reminds us -we’re not cleaning up anything. When we use the less elegant ctrl-C method to -halt the main thread, all other threads are stopped immediately as well, even -if they’re in the middle of serving a request. +To learn more about how to write macros, consult the online documentation or +other resources, such as “The Little Book of Rust Macros” at +*https://veykril.github.io/tlborm* started by Daniel Keep and continued by +Lukas Wirth. -Next, then, we’ll implement the `Drop` trait to call `join` on each of the -threads in the pool so they can finish the requests they’re working on before -closing. Then we’ll implement a way to tell the threads they should stop -accepting new requests and shut down. To see this code in action, we’ll modify -our server to accept only two requests before gracefully shutting down its -thread pool. +### Procedural Macros for Generating Code from Attributes -### Implementing the Drop Trait on ThreadPool +The second form of macros is the procedural macro, which acts more like a +function (and is a type of procedure). *Procedural macros* accept some code as +an input, operate on that code, and produce some code as an output rather than +matching against patterns and replacing the code with other code as declarative +macros do. The three kinds of procedural macros are custom `derive`, +attribute-like, and function-like, and all work in a similar fashion. -Let’s start with implementing `Drop` on our thread pool. When the pool is -dropped, our threads should all join to make sure they finish their work. -Listing 20-22 shows a first attempt at a `Drop` implementation; this code won’t -quite work yet. +When creating procedural macros, the definitions must reside in their own crate +with a special crate type. This is for complex technical reasons that we hope +to eliminate in the future. In Listing 19-29, we show how to define a +procedural macro, where `some_attribute` is a placeholder for using a specific +macro variety. Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -impl Drop for ThreadPool { - fn drop(&mut self) { - 1 for worker in &mut self.workers { - 2 println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); +use proc_macro::TokenStream; - 3 worker.thread.join().unwrap(); - } - } +#[some_attribute] +pub fn some_name(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { } ``` -Listing 20-22: Joining each thread when the thread pool goes out of scope - -First we loop through each of the thread pool `workers` [1]. We use `&mut` for -this because `self` is a mutable reference, and we also need to be able to -mutate `worker`. For each `worker`, we print a message saying that this -particular `Worker` instance is shutting down [2], and then we call `join` on -that `Worker` instance’s thread [3]. If the call to `join` fails, we use -`unwrap` to make Rust panic and go into an ungraceful shutdown. +Listing 19-29: An example of defining a procedural macro -Here is the error we get when we compile this code: +The function that defines a procedural macro takes a `TokenStream` as an input +and produces a `TokenStream` as an output. The `TokenStream` type is defined by +the `proc_macro` crate that is included with Rust and represents a sequence of +tokens. This is the core of the macro: the source code that the macro is +operating on makes up the input `TokenStream`, and the code the macro produces +is the output `TokenStream`. The function also has an attribute attached to it +that specifies which kind of procedural macro we’re creating. We can have +multiple kinds of procedural macros in the same crate. -``` -error[E0507]: cannot move out of `worker.thread` which is behind a mutable -reference - --> src/lib.rs:52:13 - | -52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ------ `worker.thread` moved due to this -method call - | | - | move occurs because `worker.thread` has type -`JoinHandle<()>`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait - | -note: this function takes ownership of the receiver `self`, which moves -`worker.thread` -``` +Let’s look at the different kinds of procedural macros. We’ll start with a +custom `derive` macro and then explain the small dissimilarities that make the +other forms different. -The error tells us we can’t call `join` because we only have a mutable borrow -of each `worker` and `join` takes ownership of its argument. To solve this -issue, we need to move the thread out of the `Worker` instance that owns -`thread` so `join` can consume the thread. We did this in Listing 17-15: if -`Worker` holds an `Option>` instead, we can call the -`take` method on the `Option` to move the value out of the `Some` variant and -leave a `None` variant in its place. In other words, a `Worker` that is running -will have a `Some` variant in `thread`, and when we want to clean up a -`Worker`, we’ll replace `Some` with `None` so the `Worker` doesn’t have a -thread to run. +### How to Write a Custom derive Macro -So we know we want to update the definition of `Worker` like this: +Let’s create a crate named `hello_macro` that defines a trait named +`HelloMacro` with one associated function named `hello_macro`. Rather than +making our users implement the `HelloMacro` trait for each of their types, +we’ll provide a procedural macro so users can annotate their type with +`#[derive(HelloMacro)]` to get a default implementation of the `hello_macro` +function. The default implementation will print `Hello, Macro! My name is` +TypeName`!` where TypeName is the name of the type on which this trait has been +defined. In other words, we’ll write a crate that enables another programmer to +write code like Listing 19-30 using our crate. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -struct Worker { - id: usize, - thread: Option>, +use hello_macro::HelloMacro; +use hello_macro_derive::HelloMacro; + +#[derive(HelloMacro)] +struct Pancakes; + +fn main() { + Pancakes::hello_macro(); } ``` -Now let’s lean on the compiler to find the other places that need to change. -Checking this code, we get two errors: +Listing 19-30: The code a user of our crate will be able to write when using +our procedural macro -``` -error[E0599]: no method named `join` found for enum `Option` in the current -scope - --> src/lib.rs:52:27 - | -52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); - | ^^^^ method not found in -`Option>` +This code will print `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` when we’re done. The +first step is to make a new library crate, like this: -error[E0308]: mismatched types - --> src/lib.rs:72:22 - | -72 | Worker { id, thread } - | ^^^^^^ expected enum `Option`, found struct -`JoinHandle` - | - = note: expected enum `Option>` - found struct `JoinHandle<_>` -help: try wrapping the expression in `Some` - | -72 | Worker { id, thread: Some(thread) } - | +++++++++++++ + +``` +$ cargo new hello_macro --lib ``` -Let’s address the second error, which points to the code at the end of -`Worker::new`; we need to wrap the `thread` value in `Some` when we create a -new `Worker`. Make the following changes to fix this error: +Next, we’ll define the `HelloMacro` trait and its associated function: Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -impl Worker { - fn new( - id: usize, - receiver: Arc>>, - ) -> Worker { - --snip-- - - Worker { - id, - thread: Some(thread), - } - } +pub trait HelloMacro { + fn hello_macro(); } ``` -The first error is in our `Drop` implementation. We mentioned earlier that we -intended to call `take` on the `Option` value to move `thread` out of `worker`. -The following changes will do so: - -Filename: src/lib.rs +We have a trait and its function. At this point, our crate user could implement +the trait to achieve the desired functionality, like so: ``` -impl Drop for ThreadPool { - fn drop(&mut self) { - for worker in &mut self.workers { - println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); +use hello_macro::HelloMacro; - 1 if let Some(thread) = worker.thread.take() { - 2 thread.join().unwrap(); - } - } +struct Pancakes; + +impl HelloMacro for Pancakes { + fn hello_macro() { + println!("Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!"); } } + +fn main() { + Pancakes::hello_macro(); +} ``` -As discussed in Chapter 17, the `take` method on `Option` takes the `Some` -variant out and leaves `None` in its place. We’re using `if let` to destructure -the `Some` and get the thread [1]; then we call `join` on the thread [2]. If a -`Worker` instance’s thread is already `None`, we know that `Worker` has already -had its thread cleaned up, so nothing happens in that case. +However, they would need to write the implementation block for each type they +wanted to use with `hello_macro`; we want to spare them from having to do this +work. -### Signaling to the Threads to Stop Listening for Jobs +Additionally, we can’t yet provide the `hello_macro` function with default +implementation that will print the name of the type the trait is implemented +on: Rust doesn’t have reflection capabilities, so it can’t look up the type’s +name at runtime. We need a macro to generate code at compile time. -With all the changes we’ve made, our code compiles without any warnings. -However, the bad news is that this code doesn’t function the way we want it to -yet. The key is the logic in the closures run by the threads of the `Worker` -instances: at the moment, we call `join`, but that won’t shut down the threads, -because they `loop` forever looking for jobs. If we try to drop our -`ThreadPool` with our current implementation of `drop`, the main thread will -block forever, waiting for the first thread to finish. +The next step is to define the procedural macro. At the time of this writing, +procedural macros need to be in their own crate. Eventually, this restriction +might be lifted. The convention for structuring crates and macro crates is as +follows: for a crate named foo, a custom `derive` procedural macro crate is +called foo`_derive`. Let’s start a new crate called `hello_macro_derive` inside +our `hello_macro` project: -To fix this problem, we’ll need a change in the `ThreadPool` `drop` -implementation and then a change in the `Worker` loop. +``` +$ cargo new hello_macro_derive --lib +``` -First we’ll change the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation to explicitly drop -the `sender` before waiting for the threads to finish. Listing 20-23 shows the -changes to `ThreadPool` to explicitly drop `sender`. We use the same `Option` -and `take` technique as we did with the thread to be able to move `sender` out -of `ThreadPool`. +Our two crates are tightly related, so we create the procedural macro crate +within the directory of our `hello_macro` crate. If we change the trait +definition in `hello_macro`, we’ll have to change the implementation of the +procedural macro in `hello_macro_derive` as well. The two crates will need to +be published separately, and programmers using these crates will need to add +both as dependencies and bring them both into scope. We could instead have the +`hello_macro` crate use `hello_macro_derive` as a dependency and re-export the +procedural macro code. However, the way we’ve structured the project makes it +possible for programmers to use `hello_macro` even if they don’t want the +`derive` functionality. -Filename: src/lib.rs +We need to declare the `hello_macro_derive` crate as a procedural macro crate. +We’ll also need functionality from the `syn` and `quote` crates, as you’ll see +in a moment, so we need to add them as dependencies. Add the following to the +*Cargo.toml* file for `hello_macro_derive`: + +Filename: hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml ``` -pub struct ThreadPool { - workers: Vec, - sender: Option>, -} ---snip-- -impl ThreadPool { - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - --snip-- +[lib] +proc-macro = true - ThreadPool { - workers, - sender: Some(sender), - } - } +[dependencies] +syn = "1.0" +quote = "1.0" +``` - pub fn execute(&self, f: F) - where - F: FnOnce() + Send + 'static, - { - let job = Box::new(f); - - self.sender - .as_ref() - .unwrap() - .send(job) - .unwrap(); - } +To start defining the procedural macro, place the code in Listing 19-31 into +your *src/lib.rs* file for the `hello_macro_derive` crate. Note that this code +won’t compile until we add a definition for the `impl_hello_macro` function. + +Filename: hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs + +``` +use proc_macro::TokenStream; +use quote::quote; +use syn; + +#[proc_macro_derive(HelloMacro)] +pub fn hello_macro_derive(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { + // Construct a representation of Rust code as a syntax tree + // that we can manipulate + let ast = syn::parse(input).unwrap(); + + // Build the trait implementation + impl_hello_macro(&ast) } +``` -impl Drop for ThreadPool { - fn drop(&mut self) { - 1 drop(self.sender.take()); +Listing 19-31: Code that most procedural macro crates will require in order to +process Rust code + +Notice that we’ve split the code into the `hello_macro_derive` function, which +is responsible for parsing the `TokenStream`, and the `impl_hello_macro` +function, which is responsible for transforming the syntax tree: this makes +writing a procedural macro more convenient. The code in the outer function +(`hello_macro_derive` in this case) will be the same for almost every +procedural macro crate you see or create. The code you specify in the body of +the inner function (`impl_hello_macro` in this case) will be different +depending on your procedural macro’s purpose. + +We’ve introduced three new crates: `proc_macro`, `syn` (available from +*https://crates.io/crates/syn*), and `quote` (available from +*https://crates.io/crates/quote*). The `proc_macro` crate comes with Rust, so +we didn’t need to add that to the dependencies in *Cargo.toml*. The +`proc_macro` crate is the compiler’s API that allows us to read and manipulate +Rust code from our code. + +The `syn` crate parses Rust code from a string into a data structure that we +can perform operations on. The `quote` crate turns `syn` data structures back +into Rust code. These crates make it much simpler to parse any sort of Rust +code we might want to handle: writing a full parser for Rust code is no simple +task. + +The `hello_macro_derive` function will be called when a user of our library +specifies `#[derive(HelloMacro)]` on a type. This is possible because we’ve +annotated the `hello_macro_derive` function here with `proc_macro_derive` and +specified the name `HelloMacro`, which matches our trait name; this is the +convention most procedural macros follow. + +The `hello_macro_derive` function first converts the `input` from a +`TokenStream` to a data structure that we can then interpret and perform +operations on. This is where `syn` comes into play. The `parse` function in +`syn` takes a `TokenStream` and returns a `DeriveInput` struct representing the +parsed Rust code. Listing 19-32 shows the relevant parts of the `DeriveInput` +struct we get from parsing the `struct Pancakes;` string. + +``` +DeriveInput { + --snip-- - for worker in &mut self.workers { - println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); + ident: Ident { + ident: "Pancakes", + span: #0 bytes(95..103) + }, + data: Struct( + DataStruct { + struct_token: Struct, + fields: Unit, + semi_token: Some( + Semi + ) + } + ) +} +``` - if let Some(thread) = worker.thread.take() { - thread.join().unwrap(); +Listing 19-32: The `DeriveInput` instance we get when parsing the code that has +the macro’s attribute in Listing 19-30 + +The fields of this struct show that the Rust code we’ve parsed is a unit struct +with the `ident` (*identifier*, meaning the name) of `Pancakes`. There are more +fields on this struct for describing all sorts of Rust code; check the `syn` +documentation for `DeriveInput` at +*https://docs.rs/syn/1.0/syn/struct.DeriveInput.html* for more information. + +Soon we’ll define the `impl_hello_macro` function, which is where we’ll build +the new Rust code we want to include. But before we do, note that the output +for our `derive` macro is also a `TokenStream`. The returned `TokenStream` is +added to the code that our crate users write, so when they compile their crate, +they’ll get the extra functionality that we provide in the modified +`TokenStream`. + +You might have noticed that we’re calling `unwrap` to cause the +`hello_macro_derive` function to panic if the call to the `syn::parse` function +fails here. It’s necessary for our procedural macro to panic on errors because +`proc_macro_derive` functions must return `TokenStream` rather than `Result` to +conform to the procedural macro API. We’ve simplified this example by using +`unwrap`; in production code, you should provide more specific error messages +about what went wrong by using `panic!` or `expect`. + +Now that we have the code to turn the annotated Rust code from a `TokenStream` +into a `DeriveInput` instance, let’s generate the code that implements the +`HelloMacro` trait on the annotated type, as shown in Listing 19-33. + +Filename: hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs + +``` +fn impl_hello_macro(ast: &syn::DeriveInput) -> TokenStream { + let name = &ast.ident; + let gen = quote! { + impl HelloMacro for #name { + fn hello_macro() { + println!( + "Hello, Macro! My name is {}!", + stringify!(#name) + ); } } - } + }; + gen.into() } ``` -Listing 20-23: Explicitly dropping `sender` before joining the `Worker` threads +Listing 19-33: Implementing the `HelloMacro` trait using the parsed Rust code -Dropping `sender` [1] closes the channel, which indicates no more messages will -be sent. When that happens, all the calls to `recv` that the `Worker` instances -do in the infinite loop will return an error. In Listing 20-24, we change the -`Worker` loop to gracefully exit the loop in that case, which means the threads -will finish when the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation calls `join` on them. +We get an `Ident` struct instance containing the name (identifier) of the +annotated type using `ast.ident`. The struct in Listing 19-32 shows that when +we run the `impl_hello_macro` function on the code in Listing 19-30, the +`ident` we get will have the `ident` field with a value of `"Pancakes"`. Thus +the `name` variable in Listing 19-33 will contain an `Ident` struct instance +that, when printed, will be the string `"Pancakes"`, the name of the struct in +Listing 19-30. -Filename: src/lib.rs +The `quote!` macro lets us define the Rust code that we want to return. The +compiler expects something different to the direct result of the `quote!` +macro’s execution, so we need to convert it to a `TokenStream`. We do this by +calling the `into` method, which consumes this intermediate representation and +returns a value of the required `TokenStream` type. + +The `quote!` macro also provides some very cool templating mechanics: we can +enter `#name`, and `quote!` will replace it with the value in the variable +`name`. You can even do some repetition similar to the way regular macros work. +Check out the `quote` crate’s docs at *https://docs.rs/quote* for a thorough +introduction. + +We want our procedural macro to generate an implementation of our `HelloMacro` +trait for the type the user annotated, which we can get by using `#name`. The +trait implementation has the one function `hello_macro`, whose body contains +the functionality we want to provide: printing `Hello, Macro! My name is` and +then the name of the annotated type. + +The `stringify!` macro used here is built into Rust. It takes a Rust +expression, such as `1 + 2`, and at compile time turns the expression into a +string literal, such as `"1 + 2"`. This is different from `format!` or +`println!`, macros which evaluate the expression and then turn the result into +a `String`. There is a possibility that the `#name` input might be an +expression to print literally, so we use `stringify!`. Using `stringify!` also +saves an allocation by converting `#name` to a string literal at compile time. + +At this point, `cargo build` should complete successfully in both `hello_macro` +and `hello_macro_derive`. Let’s hook up these crates to the code in Listing +19-30 to see the procedural macro in action! Create a new binary project in +your *projects* directory using `cargo new pancakes`. We need to add +`hello_macro` and `hello_macro_derive` as dependencies in the `pancakes` +crate’s *Cargo.toml*. If you’re publishing your versions of `hello_macro` and +`hello_macro_derive` to *https://crates.io*, they would be regular +dependencies; if not, you can specify them as `path` dependencies as follows: ``` -impl Worker { - fn new( - id: usize, - receiver: Arc>>, - ) -> Worker { - let thread = thread::spawn(move || loop { - let message = receiver.lock().unwrap().recv(); - - match message { - Ok(job) => { - println!( - "Worker {id} got a job; executing." - ); - - job(); - } - Err(_) => { - println!( - "Worker {id} shutting down." - ); - break; - } - } - }); +[dependencies] +hello_macro = { path = "../hello_macro" } +hello_macro_derive = { path = "../hello_macro/hello_macro_derive" } +``` - Worker { - id, - thread: Some(thread), - } - } -} +Put the code in Listing 19-30 into *src/main.rs*, and run `cargo run`: it +should print `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` The implementation of the +`HelloMacro` trait from the procedural macro was included without the +`pancakes` crate needing to implement it; the `#[derive(HelloMacro)]` added the +trait implementation. + +Next, let’s explore how the other kinds of procedural macros differ from custom +`derive` macros. + +### Attribute-like Macros + +Attribute-like macros are similar to custom `derive` macros, but instead of +generating code for the `derive` attribute, they allow you to create new +attributes. They’re also more flexible: `derive` only works for structs and +enums; attributes can be applied to other items as well, such as functions. +Here’s an example of using an attribute-like macro. Say you have an attribute +named `route` that annotates functions when using a web application framework: + +``` +#[route(GET, "/")] +fn index() { ``` -Listing 20-24: Explicitly breaking out of the loop when `recv` returns an error +This `#[route]` attribute would be defined by the framework as a procedural +macro. The signature of the macro definition function would look like this: -To see this code in action, let’s modify `main` to accept only two requests -before gracefully shutting down the server, as shown in Listing 20-25. +``` +#[proc_macro_attribute] +pub fn route( + attr: TokenStream, + item: TokenStream +) -> TokenStream { +``` -Filename: src/main.rs +Here, we have two parameters of type `TokenStream`. The first is for the +contents of the attribute: the `GET, "/"` part. The second is the body of the +item the attribute is attached to: in this case, `fn index() {}` and the rest +of the function’s body. + +Other than that, attribute-like macros work the same way as custom `derive` +macros: you create a crate with the `proc-macro` crate type and implement a +function that generates the code you want! + +### Function-like Macros + +Function-like macros define macros that look like function calls. Similarly to +`macro_rules!` macros, they’re more flexible than functions; for example, they +can take an unknown number of arguments. However, `macro_rules!` macros can +only be defined using the match-like syntax we discussed in “Declarative Macros +with macro_rules! for General Metaprogramming” on page XX. Function-like macros +take a `TokenStream` parameter, and their definition manipulates that +`TokenStream` using Rust code as the other two types of procedural macros do. +An example of a function-like macro is an `sql!` macro that might be called +like so: ``` -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); +let sql = sql!(SELECT * FROM posts WHERE id=1); +``` - for stream in listener.incoming().take(2) { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); +This macro would parse the SQL statement inside it and check that it’s +syntactically correct, which is much more complex processing than a +`macro_rules!` macro can do. The `sql!` macro would be defined like this: - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } +``` +#[proc_macro] +pub fn sql(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { +``` - println!("Shutting down."); -} -``` - -Listing 20-25: Shutting down the server after serving two requests by exiting -the loop - -You wouldn’t want a real-world web server to shut down after serving only two -requests. This code just demonstrates that the graceful shutdown and cleanup is -in working order. - -The `take` method is defined in the `Iterator` trait and limits the iteration -to the first two items at most. The `ThreadPool` will go out of scope at the -end of `main`, and the `drop` implementation will run. - -Start the server with `cargo run`, and make three requests. The third request -should error, and in your terminal you should see output similar to this: - -``` -$ cargo run - Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.0s - Running `target/debug/hello` -Worker 0 got a job; executing. -Shutting down. -Shutting down worker 0 -Worker 3 got a job; executing. -Worker 1 disconnected; shutting down. -Worker 2 disconnected; shutting down. -Worker 3 disconnected; shutting down. -Worker 0 disconnected; shutting down. -Shutting down worker 1 -Shutting down worker 2 -Shutting down worker 3 -``` - -You might see a different ordering of `Worker` IDs and messages printed. We can -see how this code works from the messages: `Worker` instances 0 and 3 got the -first two requests. The server stopped accepting connections after the second -connection, and the `Drop` implementation on `ThreadPool` starts executing -before `Worker` 3 even starts its job. Dropping the `sender` disconnects all -the `Worker` instances and tells them to shut down. The `Worker` instances each -print a message when they disconnect, and then the thread pool calls `join` to -wait for each `Worker` thread to finish. - -Notice one interesting aspect of this particular execution: the `ThreadPool` -dropped the `sender`, and before any `Worker` received an error, we tried to -join `Worker` 0. `Worker` 0 had not yet gotten an error from `recv`, so the -main thread blocked, waiting for `Worker` 0 to finish. In the meantime, -`Worker` 3 received a job and then all threads received an error. When `Worker` -0 finished, the main thread waited for the rest of the `Worker` instances to -finish. At that point, they had all exited their loops and stopped. - -Congrats! We’ve now completed our project; we have a basic web server that uses -a thread pool to respond asynchronously. We’re able to perform a graceful -shutdown of the server, which cleans up all the threads in the pool. See -*https://www.nostarch.com/Rust2021* to download the full code for this chapter -for reference. - -We could do more here! If you want to continue enhancing this project, here are -some ideas: - -* Add more documentation to `ThreadPool` and its public methods. -* Add tests of the library’s functionality. -* Change calls to `unwrap` to more robust error handling. -* Use `ThreadPool` to perform some task other than serving web requests. -* Find a thread pool crate on *https://crates.io* and implement a similar web -server using the crate instead. Then compare its API and robustness to the -thread pool we implemented. +This definition is similar to the custom `derive` macro’s signature: we receive +the tokens that are inside the parentheses and return the code we wanted to +generate. ## Summary -Well done! You’ve made it to the end of the book! We want to thank you for -joining us on this tour of Rust. You’re now ready to implement your own Rust -projects and help with other people’s projects. Keep in mind that there is a -welcoming community of other Rustaceans who would love to help you with any -challenges you encounter on your Rust journey. +Whew! Now you have some Rust features in your toolbox that you likely won’t use +often, but you’ll know they’re available in very particular circumstances. +We’ve introduced several complex topics so that when you encounter them in +error message suggestions or in other people’s code, you’ll be able to +recognize these concepts and syntax. Use this chapter as a reference to guide +you to solutions. + +Next, we’ll put everything we’ve discussed throughout the book into practice +and do one more project! diff --git a/nostarch/chapter21.md b/nostarch/chapter21.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9d4e22cd7 --- /dev/null +++ b/nostarch/chapter21.md @@ -0,0 +1,1994 @@ + + +[TOC] + +# Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server + +It’s been a long journey, but we’ve reached the end of the book. In this +chapter, we’ll build one more project together to demonstrate some of the +concepts we covered in the final chapters, as well as recap some earlier +lessons. + +For our final project, we’ll make a web server that says “hello” and looks like +Figure 20-1 in a web browser. + +Figure 20-1: Our final shared project + +Here is our plan for building the web server: + +1. Learn a bit about TCP and HTTP. +1. Listen for TCP connections on a socket. +1. Parse a small number of HTTP requests. +1. Create a proper HTTP response. +1. Improve the throughput of our server with a thread pool. + +Before we get started, we should mention one detail: the method we’ll use won’t +be the best way to build a web server with Rust. Community members have +published a number of production-ready crates available at *https://crates.io* +that provide more complete web server and thread pool implementations than +we’ll build. However, our intention in this chapter is to help you learn, not +to take the easy route. Because Rust is a systems programming language, we can +choose the level of abstraction we want to work with and can go to a lower +level than is possible or practical in other languages. We’ll therefore write +the basic HTTP server and thread pool manually so you can learn the general +ideas and techniques behind the crates you might use in the future. + +## Building a Single-Threaded Web Server + +We’ll start by getting a single-threaded web server working. Before we begin, +let’s look at a quick overview of the protocols involved in building web +servers. The details of these protocols are beyond the scope of this book, but +a brief overview will give you the information you need. + +The two main protocols involved in web servers are *Hypertext Transfer +Protocol* *(HTTP)* and *Transmission Control Protocol* *(TCP)*. Both protocols +are *request-response* protocols, meaning a *client* initiates requests and a +*server* listens to the requests and provides a response to the client. The +contents of those requests and responses are defined by the protocols. + +TCP is the lower-level protocol that describes the details of how information +gets from one server to another but doesn’t specify what that information is. +HTTP builds on top of TCP by defining the contents of the requests and +responses. It’s technically possible to use HTTP with other protocols, but in +the vast majority of cases, HTTP sends its data over TCP. We’ll work with the +raw bytes of TCP and HTTP requests and responses. + +### Listening to the TCP Connection + +Our web server needs to listen to a TCP connection, so that’s the first part +we’ll work on. The standard library offers a `std::net` module that lets us do +this. Let’s make a new project in the usual fashion: + +``` +$ cargo new hello + Created binary (application) `hello` project +$ cd hello +``` + +Now enter the code in Listing 20-1 in *src/main.rs* to start. This code will +listen at the local address `127.0.0.1:7878` for incoming TCP streams. When it +gets an incoming stream, it will print `Connection established!`. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use std::net::TcpListener; + +fn main() { + 1 let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + + 2 for stream in listener.incoming() { + 3 let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + 4 println!("Connection established!"); + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-1: Listening for incoming streams and printing a message when we +receive a stream + +Using `TcpListener`, we can listen for TCP connections at the address +`127.0.0.1:7878` [1]. In the address, the section before the colon is an IP +address representing your computer (this is the same on every computer and +doesn’t represent the authors’ computer specifically), and `7878` is the port. +We’ve chosen this port for two reasons: HTTP isn’t normally accepted on this +port, so our server is unlikely to conflict with any other web server you might +have running on your machine, and 7878 is *rust* typed on a telephone. + +The `bind` function in this scenario works like the `new` function in that it +will return a new `TcpListener` instance. The function is called `bind` +because, in networking, connecting to a port to listen to is known as “binding +to a port.” + +The `bind` function returns a `Result`, which indicates that it’s +possible for binding to fail. For example, connecting to port 80 requires +administrator privileges (non-administrators can listen only on ports higher +than 1023), so if we tried to connect to port 80 without being an +administrator, binding wouldn’t work. Binding also wouldn’t work, for example, +if we ran two instances of our program and so had two programs listening to the +same port. Because we’re writing a basic server just for learning purposes, we +won’t worry about handling these kinds of errors; instead, we use `unwrap` to +stop the program if errors happen. + +The `incoming` method on `TcpListener` returns an iterator that gives us a +sequence of streams [2] (more specifically, streams of type `TcpStream`). A +single *stream* represents an open connection between the client and the +server. A *connection* is the name for the full request and response process in +which a client connects to the server, the server generates a response, and the +server closes the connection. As such, we will read from the `TcpStream` to see +what the client sent and then write our response to the stream to send data +back to the client. Overall, this `for` loop will process each connection in +turn and produce a series of streams for us to handle. + +For now, our handling of the stream consists of calling `unwrap` to terminate +our program if the stream has any errors [3]; if there aren’t any errors, the +program prints a message [4]. We’ll add more functionality for the success case +in the next listing. The reason we might receive errors from the `incoming` +method when a client connects to the server is that we’re not actually +iterating over connections. Instead, we’re iterating over *connection +attempts*. The connection might not be successful for a number of reasons, many +of them operating system specific. For example, many operating systems have a +limit to the number of simultaneous open connections they can support; new +connection attempts beyond that number will produce an error until some of the +open connections are closed. + +Let’s try running this code! Invoke `cargo run` in the terminal and then load +*127.0.0.1:7878* in a web browser. The browser should show an error message +like “Connection reset” because the server isn’t currently sending back any +data. But when you look at your terminal, you should see several messages that +were printed when the browser connected to the server! + +``` + Running `target/debug/hello` +Connection established! +Connection established! +Connection established! +``` + +Sometimes you’ll see multiple messages printed for one browser request; the +reason might be that the browser is making a request for the page as well as a +request for other resources, like the *favicon.ico* icon that appears in the +browser tab. + +It could also be that the browser is trying to connect to the server multiple +times because the server isn’t responding with any data. When `stream` goes out +of scope and is dropped at the end of the loop, the connection is closed as +part of the `drop` implementation. Browsers sometimes deal with closed +connections by retrying, because the problem might be temporary. The important +factor is that we’ve successfully gotten a handle to a TCP connection! + +Remember to stop the program by pressing ctrl-C when you’re done running a +particular version of the code. Then restart the program by invoking the `cargo +run` command after you’ve made each set of code changes to make sure you’re +running the newest code. + +### Reading the Request + +Let’s implement the functionality to read the request from the browser! To +separate the concerns of first getting a connection and then taking some action +with the connection, we’ll start a new function for processing connections. In +this new `handle_connection` function, we’ll read data from the TCP stream and +print it so we can see the data being sent from the browser. Change the code to +look like Listing 20-2. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +1 use std::{ + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + 2 handle_connection(stream); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + 3 let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + 4 let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader + 5 .lines() + 6 .map(|result| result.unwrap()) + 7 .take_while(|line| !line.is_empty()) + .collect(); + + 8 println!("Request: {:#?}", http_request); +} +``` + +Listing 20-2: Reading from the `TcpStream` and printing the data + +We bring `std::io::prelude` and `std::io::BufReader` into scope to get access +to traits and types that let us read from and write to the stream [1]. In the +`for` loop in the `main` function, instead of printing a message that says we +made a connection, we now call the new `handle_connection` function and pass +the `stream` to it [2]. + +In the `handle_connection` function, we create a new `BufReader` instance that +wraps a mutable reference to the `stream` [3]. `BufReader` adds buffering by +managing calls to the `std::io::Read` trait methods for us. + +We create a variable named `http_request` to collect the lines of the request +the browser sends to our server. We indicate that we want to collect these +lines in a vector by adding the `Vec<_>` type annotation [4]. + +`BufReader` implements the `std::io::BufRead` trait, which provides the `lines` +method [5]. The `lines` method returns an iterator of `Result` by splitting the stream of data whenever it sees a newline +byte. To get each `String`, we map and `unwrap` each `Result` [6]. The `Result` +might be an error if the data isn’t valid UTF-8 or if there was a problem +reading from the stream. Again, a production program should handle these errors +more gracefully, but we’re choosing to stop the program in the error case for +simplicity. + +The browser signals the end of an HTTP request by sending two newline +characters in a row, so to get one request from the stream, we take lines until +we get a line that is the empty string [7]. Once we’ve collected the lines into +the vector, we’re printing them out using pretty debug formatting [8] so we can +take a look at the instructions the web browser is sending to our server. + +Let’s try this code! Start the program and make a request in a web browser +again. Note that we’ll still get an error page in the browser, but our +program’s output in the terminal will now look similar to this: + +``` +$ cargo run + Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.42s + Running `target/debug/hello` +Request: [ + "GET / HTTP/1.1", + "Host: 127.0.0.1:7878", + "User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10.15; rv:99.0) +Gecko/20100101 Firefox/99.0", + "Accept: +text/html,application/xhtml+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,image/avif,image/webp,*/* +;q=0.8", + "Accept-Language: en-US,en;q=0.5", + "Accept-Encoding: gzip, deflate, br", + "DNT: 1", + "Connection: keep-alive", + "Upgrade-Insecure-Requests: 1", + "Sec-Fetch-Dest: document", + "Sec-Fetch-Mode: navigate", + "Sec-Fetch-Site: none", + "Sec-Fetch-User: ?1", + "Cache-Control: max-age=0", +] +``` + +Depending on your browser, you might get slightly different output. Now that +we’re printing the request data, we can see why we get multiple connections +from one browser request by looking at the path after `GET` in the first line +of the request. If the repeated connections are all requesting */*, we know the +browser is trying to fetch */* repeatedly because it’s not getting a response +from our program. + +Let’s break down this request data to understand what the browser is asking of +our program. + +### A Closer Look at an HTTP Request + +HTTP is a text-based protocol, and a request takes this format: + +``` +Method Request-URI HTTP-Version CRLF +headers CRLF +message-body +``` + +The first line is the *request line* that holds information about what the +client is requesting. The first part of the request line indicates the *method* +being used, such as `GET` or `POST`, which describes how the client is making +this request. Our client used a `GET` request, which means it is asking for +information. + +The next part of the request line is */*, which indicates the *uniform resource +identifier* *(URI)* the client is requesting: a URI is almost, but not quite, +the same as a *uniform resource locator* *(URL)*. The difference between URIs +and URLs isn’t important for our purposes in this chapter, but the HTTP spec +uses the term *URI*, so we can just mentally substitute *URL* for *URI* here. + +The last part is the HTTP version the client uses, and then the request line +ends in a CRLF sequence. (CRLF stands for *carriage return* and *line feed*, +which are terms from the typewriter days!) The CRLF sequence can also be +written as `\r\n`, where `\r` is a carriage return and `\n` is a line feed. The +*CRLF sequence* separates the request line from the rest of the request data. +Note that when the CRLF is printed, we see a new line start rather than `\r\n`. + +Looking at the request line data we received from running our program so far, +we see that `GET` is the method, */* is the request URI, and `HTTP/1.1` is the +version. + +After the request line, the remaining lines starting from `Host:` onward are +headers. `GET` requests have no body. + +Try making a request from a different browser or asking for a different +address, such as *127.0.0.1:7878/test*, to see how the request data changes. + +Now that we know what the browser is asking for, let’s send back some data! + +### Writing a Response + +We’re going to implement sending data in response to a client request. +Responses have the following format: + +``` +HTTP-Version Status-Code Reason-Phrase CRLF +headers CRLF +message-body +``` + +The first line is a *status line* that contains the HTTP version used in the +response, a numeric status code that summarizes the result of the request, and +a reason phrase that provides a text description of the status code. After the +CRLF sequence are any headers, another CRLF sequence, and the body of the +response. + +Here is an example response that uses HTTP version 1.1, and has a status code +of 200, an OK reason phrase, no headers, and no body: + +``` +HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n\r\n +``` + +The status code 200 is the standard success response. The text is a tiny +successful HTTP response. Let’s write this to the stream as our response to a +successful request! From the `handle_connection` function, remove the +`println!` that was printing the request data and replace it with the code in +Listing 20-3. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader + .lines() + .map(|result| result.unwrap()) + .take_while(|line| !line.is_empty()) + .collect(); + + 1 let response = "HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n\r\n"; + + 2 stream.write_all(response.3 as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} +``` + +Listing 20-3: Writing a tiny successful HTTP response to the stream + +The first new line defines the `response` variable that holds the success +message’s data [1]. Then we call `as_bytes` on our `response` to convert the +string data to bytes [3]. The `write_all` method on `stream` takes a `&[u8]` +and sends those bytes directly down the connection [2]. Because the `write_all` +operation could fail, we use `unwrap` on any error result as before. Again, in +a real application you would add error handling here. + +With these changes, let’s run our code and make a request. We’re no longer +printing any data to the terminal, so we won’t see any output other than the +output from Cargo. When you load *127.0.0.1:7878* in a web browser, you should +get a blank page instead of an error. You’ve just handcoded receiving an HTTP +request and sending a response! + +### Returning Real HTML + +Let’s implement the functionality for returning more than a blank page. Create +the new file *hello.html* in the root of your project directory, not in the +*src* directory. You can input any HTML you want; Listing 20-4 shows one +possibility. + +Filename: hello.html + +``` + + + + + Hello! + + +

Hello!

+

Hi from Rust

+ + +``` + +Listing 20-4: A sample HTML file to return in a response + +This is a minimal HTML5 document with a heading and some text. To return this +from the server when a request is received, we’ll modify `handle_connection` as +shown in Listing 20-5 to read the HTML file, add it to the response as a body, +and send it. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use std::{ + 1 fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, +}; +--snip-- + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader + .lines() + .map(|result| result.unwrap()) + .take_while(|line| !line.is_empty()) + .collect(); + + let status_line = "HTTP/1.1 200 OK"; + let contents = fs::read_to_string("hello.html").unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + 2 let response = format!( + "{status_line}\r\n\ + Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n\ + {contents}" + ); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} +``` + +Listing 20-5: Sending the contents of *hello.html* as the body of the response + +We’ve added `fs` to the `use` statement to bring the standard library’s +filesystem module into scope [1]. The code for reading the contents of a file +to a string should look familiar; we used it when we read the contents of a +file for our I/O project in Listing 12-4. + +Next, we use `format!` to add the file’s contents as the body of the success +response [2]. To ensure a valid HTTP response, we add the `Content-Length` +header which is set to the size of our response body, in this case the size of +`hello.html`. + +Run this code with `cargo run` and load *127.0.0.1:7878* in your browser; you +should see your HTML rendered! + +Currently, we’re ignoring the request data in `http_request` and just sending +back the contents of the HTML file unconditionally. That means if you try +requesting *127.0.0.1:7878/something-else* in your browser, you’ll still get +back this same HTML response. At the moment, our server is very limited and +does not do what most web servers do. We want to customize our responses +depending on the request and only send back the HTML file for a well-formed +request to */*. + +### Validating the Request and Selectively Responding + +Right now, our web server will return the HTML in the file no matter what the +client requested. Let’s add functionality to check that the browser is +requesting */* before returning the HTML file, and return an error if the +browser requests anything else. For this we need to modify `handle_connection`, +as shown in Listing 20-6. This new code checks the content of the request +received against what we know a request for */* looks like and adds `if` and +`else` blocks to treat requests differently. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +--snip-- + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + 1 let request_line = buf_reader + .lines() + .next() + .unwrap() + .unwrap(); + + 2 if request_line == "GET / HTTP/1.1" { + let status_line = "HTTP/1.1 200 OK"; + let contents = fs::read_to_string("hello.html").unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = format!( + "{status_line}\r\n\ + Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n\ + {contents}" + ); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); + 3 } else { + // some other request + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-6: Handling requests to */* differently from other requests + +We’re only going to be looking at the first line of the HTTP request, so rather +than reading the entire request into a vector, we’re calling `next` to get the +first item from the iterator [1]. The first `unwrap` takes care of the `Option` +and stops the program if the iterator has no items. The second `unwrap` handles +the `Result` and has the same effect as the `unwrap` that was in the `map` +added in Listing 20-2. + +Next, we check the `request_line` to see if it equals the request line of a GET +request to the */* path [2]. If it does, the `if` block returns the contents of +our HTML file. + +If the `request_line` does *not* equal the GET request to the */* path, it +means we’ve received some other request. We’ll add code to the `else` block [3] +in a moment to respond to all other requests. + +Run this code now and request *127.0.0.1:7878*; you should get the HTML in +*hello.html*. If you make any other request, such as +*127.0.0.1:7878/something-else*, you’ll get a connection error like those you +saw when running the code in Listing 20-1 and Listing 20-2. + +Now let’s add the code in Listing 20-7 to the `else` block to return a response +with the status code 404, which signals that the content for the request was +not found. We’ll also return some HTML for a page to render in the browser +indicating the response to the end user. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +--snip-- +} else { + 1 let status_line = "HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND"; + 2 let contents = fs::read_to_string("404.html").unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = format!( + "{status_line}\r\n\ + Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n + {contents}" + ); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} +``` + +Listing 20-7: Responding with status code 404 and an error page if anything +other than */* was requested + +Here, our response has a status line with status code 404 and the reason phrase +`NOT FOUND` [1]. The body of the response will be the HTML in the file +*404.html* [1]. You’ll need to create a *404.html* file next to *hello.html* +for the error page; again feel free to use any HTML you want, or use the +example HTML in Listing 20-8. + +Filename: 404.html + +``` + + + + + Hello! + + +

Oops!

+

Sorry, I don't know what you're asking for.

+ + +``` + +Listing 20-8: Sample content for the page to send back with any 404 response + +With these changes, run your server again. Requesting *127.0.0.1:7878* should +return the contents of *hello.html*, and any other request, like +*127.0.0.1:7878/foo*, should return the error HTML from *404.html*. + +### A Touch of Refactoring + +At the moment, the `if` and `else` blocks have a lot of repetition: they’re +both reading files and writing the contents of the files to the stream. The +only differences are the status line and the filename. Let’s make the code more +concise by pulling out those differences into separate `if` and `else` lines +that will assign the values of the status line and the filename to variables; +we can then use those variables unconditionally in the code to read the file +and write the response. Listing 20-9 shows the resultant code after replacing +the large `if` and `else` blocks. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +--snip-- + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + --snip-- + + let (status_line, filename) = + if request_line == "GET / HTTP/1.1" { + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } else { + ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html") + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = format!( + "{status_line}\r\n\ + Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n\ + {contents}" + ); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} +``` + +Listing 20-9: Refactoring the `if` and `else` blocks to contain only the code +that differs between the two cases + +Now the `if` and `else` blocks only return the appropriate values for the +status line and filename in a tuple; we then use destructuring to assign these +two values to `status_line` and `filename` using a pattern in the `let` +statement, as discussed in Chapter 18. + +The previously duplicated code is now outside the `if` and `else` blocks and +uses the `status_line` and `filename` variables. This makes it easier to see +the difference between the two cases, and it means we have only one place to +update the code if we want to change how the file reading and response writing +work. The behavior of the code in Listing 20-9 will be the same as that in +Listing 20-8. + +Awesome! We now have a simple web server in approximately 40 lines of Rust code +that responds to one request with a page of content and responds to all other +requests with a 404 response. + +Currently, our server runs in a single thread, meaning it can only serve one +request at a time. Let’s examine how that can be a problem by simulating some +slow requests. Then we’ll fix it so our server can handle multiple requests at +once. + +## Turning Our Single-Threaded Server into a Multithreaded Server + +Right now, the server will process each request in turn, meaning it won’t +process a second connection until the first is finished processing. If the +server received more and more requests, this serial execution would be less and +less optimal. If the server receives a request that takes a long time to +process, subsequent requests will have to wait until the long request is +finished, even if the new requests can be processed quickly. We’ll need to fix +this, but first we’ll look at the problem in action. + +### Simulating a Slow Request + +We’ll look at how a slow-processing request can affect other requests made to +our current server implementation. Listing 20-10 implements handling a request +to */sleep* with a simulated slow response that will cause the server to sleep +for five seconds before responding. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; +--snip-- + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + --snip-- + + let (status_line, filename) = 1 match &request_line[..] { + 2 "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + 3 "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + 4 _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + --snip-- +} +``` + +Listing 20-10: Simulating a slow request by sleeping for five seconds + +We switched from `if` to `match` now that we have three cases [1]. We need to +explicitly match on a slice of `request_line` to pattern-match against the +string literal values; `match` doesn’t do automatic referencing and +dereferencing, like the equality method does. + +The first arm [2] is the same as the `if` block from Listing 20-9. The second +arm [3] matches a request to */sleep*. When that request is received, the +server will sleep for five seconds before rendering the successful HTML page. +The third arm [4] is the same as the `else` block from Listing 20-9. + +You can see how primitive our server is: real libraries would handle the +recognition of multiple requests in a much less verbose way! + +Start the server using `cargo run`. Then open two browser windows: one for +*http://127.0.0.1:7878* and the other for *http://127.0.0.1:7878/sleep*. If you +enter the */* URI a few times, as before, you’ll see it respond quickly. But if +you enter */sleep* and then load */*, you’ll see that */* waits until `sleep` +has slept for its full five seconds before loading. + +There are multiple techniques we could use to avoid requests backing up behind +a slow request; the one we’ll implement is a thread pool. + +### Improving Throughput with a Thread Pool + +A *thread pool* is a group of spawned threads that are waiting and ready to +handle a task. When the program receives a new task, it assigns one of the +threads in the pool to the task, and that thread will process the task. The +remaining threads in the pool are available to handle any other tasks that come +in while the first thread is processing. When the first thread is done +processing its task, it’s returned to the pool of idle threads, ready to handle +a new task. A thread pool allows you to process connections concurrently, +increasing the throughput of your server. + +We’ll limit the number of threads in the pool to a small number to protect us +from DoS attacks; if we had our program create a new thread for each request as +it came in, someone making 10 million requests to our server could create havoc +by using up all our server’s resources and grinding the processing of requests +to a halt. + +Rather than spawning unlimited threads, then, we’ll have a fixed number of +threads waiting in the pool. Requests that come in are sent to the pool for +processing. The pool will maintain a queue of incoming requests. Each of the +threads in the pool will pop off a request from this queue, handle the request, +and then ask the queue for another request. With this design, we can process up +to N requests concurrently, where N is the number of threads. If each thread is +responding to a long-running request, subsequent requests can still back up in +the queue, but we’ve increased the number of long-running requests we can +handle before reaching that point. + +This technique is just one of many ways to improve the throughput of a web +server. Other options you might explore are the fork/join model, the +single-threaded async I/O model, and the multithreaded async I/O model. If +you’re interested in this topic, you can read more about other solutions and +try to implement them; with a low-level language like Rust, all of these +options are possible. + +Before we begin implementing a thread pool, let’s talk about what using the +pool should look like. When you’re trying to design code, writing the client +interface first can help guide your design. Write the API of the code so it’s +structured in the way you want to call it; then implement the functionality +within that structure rather than implementing the functionality and then +designing the public API. + +Similar to how we used test-driven development in the project in Chapter 12, +we’ll use compiler-driven development here. We’ll write the code that calls the +functions we want, and then we’ll look at errors from the compiler to determine +what we should change next to get the code to work. Before we do that, however, +we’ll explore the technique we’re not going to use as a starting point. + +#### Spawning a Thread for Each Request + +First, let’s explore how our code might look if it did create a new thread for +every connection. As mentioned earlier, this isn’t our final plan due to the +problems with potentially spawning an unlimited number of threads, but it is a +starting point to get a working multithreaded server first. Then we’ll add the +thread pool as an improvement, and contrasting the two solutions will be easier. + +Listing 20-11 shows the changes to make to `main` to spawn a new thread to +handle each stream within the `for` loop. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + thread::spawn(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-11: Spawning a new thread for each stream + +As you learned in Chapter 16, `thread::spawn` will create a new thread and then +run the code in the closure in the new thread. If you run this code and load +*/sleep* in your browser, then */* in two more browser tabs, you’ll indeed see +that the requests to */* don’t have to wait for */sleep* to finish. However, as +we mentioned, this will eventually overwhelm the system because you’d be making +new threads without any limit. + +#### Creating a Finite Number of Threads + +We want our thread pool to work in a similar, familiar way so that switching +from threads to a thread pool doesn’t require large changes to the code that +uses our API. Listing 20-12 shows the hypothetical interface for a `ThreadPool` +struct we want to use instead of `thread::spawn`. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + 1 let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + 2 pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-12: Our ideal `ThreadPool` interface + +We use `ThreadPool::new` to create a new thread pool with a configurable number +of threads, in this case four [1]. Then, in the `for` loop, `pool.execute` has +a similar interface as `thread::spawn` in that it takes a closure the pool +should run for each stream [2]. We need to implement `pool.execute` so it takes +the closure and gives it to a thread in the pool to run. This code won’t yet +compile, but we’ll try so that the compiler can guide us in how to fix it. + +#### Building ThreadPool Using Compiler-Driven Development + +Make the changes in Listing 20-12 to *src/main.rs*, and then let’s use the +compiler errors from `cargo check` to drive our development. Here is the first +error we get: + +``` +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) +error[E0433]: failed to resolve: use of undeclared type `ThreadPool` + --> src/main.rs:11:16 + | +11 | let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + | ^^^^^^^^^^ use of undeclared type `ThreadPool` +``` + +Great! This error tells us we need a `ThreadPool` type or module, so we’ll +build one now. Our `ThreadPool` implementation will be independent of the kind +of work our web server is doing. So let’s switch the `hello` crate from a +binary crate to a library crate to hold our `ThreadPool` implementation. After +we change to a library crate, we could also use the separate thread pool +library for any work we want to do using a thread pool, not just for serving +web requests. + +Create a *src/lib.rs* file that contains the following, which is the simplest +definition of a `ThreadPool` struct that we can have for now: + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +pub struct ThreadPool; +``` + +Then edit the *main.rs* file to bring `ThreadPool` into scope from the library +crate by adding the following code to the top of *src/main.rs*: + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use hello::ThreadPool; +``` + +This code still won’t work, but let’s check it again to get the next error that +we need to address: + +``` +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) +error[E0599]: no function or associated item named `new` found for struct +`ThreadPool` in the current scope + --> src/main.rs:12:28 + | +12 | let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + | ^^^ function or associated item not found in +`ThreadPool` +``` + +This error indicates that next we need to create an associated function named +`new` for `ThreadPool`. We also know that `new` needs to have one parameter +that can accept `4` as an argument and should return a `ThreadPool` instance. +Let’s implement the simplest `new` function that will have those +characteristics: + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +pub struct ThreadPool; + +impl ThreadPool { + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + ThreadPool + } +} +``` + +We chose `usize` as the type of the `size` parameter because we know that a +negative number of threads doesn’t make any sense. We also know we’ll use this +`4` as the number of elements in a collection of threads, which is what the +`usize` type is for, as discussed in “Integer Types” on page XX. + +Let’s check the code again: + +``` +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) +error[E0599]: no method named `execute` found for struct `ThreadPool` in the +current scope + --> src/main.rs:17:14 + | +17 | pool.execute(|| { + | ^^^^^^^ method not found in `ThreadPool` +``` + +Now the error occurs because we don’t have an `execute` method on `ThreadPool`. +Recall from “Creating a Finite Number of Threads” on page XX that we decided +our thread pool should have an interface similar to `thread::spawn`. In +addition, we’ll implement the `execute` function so it takes the closure it’s +given and gives it to an idle thread in the pool to run. + +We’ll define the `execute` method on `ThreadPool` to take a closure as a +parameter. Recall from “Moving Captured Values Out of Closures and the Fn +Traits” on page XX that we can take closures as parameters with three different +traits: `Fn`, `FnMut`, and `FnOnce`. We need to decide which kind of closure to +use here. We know we’ll end up doing something similar to the standard library +`thread::spawn` implementation, so we can look at what bounds the signature of +`thread::spawn` has on its parameter. The documentation shows us the following: + +``` +pub fn spawn(f: F) -> JoinHandle + where + F: FnOnce() -> T, + F: Send + 'static, + T: Send + 'static, +``` + +The `F` type parameter is the one we’re concerned with here; the `T` type +parameter is related to the return value, and we’re not concerned with that. We +can see that `spawn` uses `FnOnce` as the trait bound on `F`. This is probably +what we want as well, because we’ll eventually pass the argument we get in +`execute` to `spawn`. We can be further confident that `FnOnce` is the trait we +want to use because the thread for running a request will only execute that +request’s closure one time, which matches the `Once` in `FnOnce`. + +The `F` type parameter also has the trait bound `Send` and the lifetime bound +`'static`, which are useful in our situation: we need `Send` to transfer the +closure from one thread to another and `'static` because we don’t know how long +the thread will take to execute. Let’s create an `execute` method on +`ThreadPool` that will take a generic parameter of type `F` with these bounds: + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + pub fn execute(&self, f: F) + where + F: FnOnce() 1 + Send + 'static, + { + } +} +``` + +We still use the `()` after `FnOnce` [1] because this `FnOnce` represents a +closure that takes no parameters and returns the unit type `()`. Just like +function definitions, the return type can be omitted from the signature, but +even if we have no parameters, we still need the parentheses. + +Again, this is the simplest implementation of the `execute` method: it does +nothing, but we’re only trying to make our code compile. Let’s check it again: + +``` +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.24s +``` + +It compiles! But note that if you try `cargo run` and make a request in the +browser, you’ll see the errors in the browser that we saw at the beginning of +the chapter. Our library isn’t actually calling the closure passed to `execute` +yet! + +> Note: A saying you might hear about languages with strict compilers, such as +Haskell and Rust, is “if the code compiles, it works.” But this saying is not +universally true. Our project compiles, but it does absolutely nothing! If we +were building a real, complete project, this would be a good time to start +writing unit tests to check that the code compiles *and* has the behavior we +want. + +#### Validating the Number of Threads in new + +We aren’t doing anything with the parameters to `new` and `execute`. Let’s +implement the bodies of these functions with the behavior we want. To start, +let’s think about `new`. Earlier we chose an unsigned type for the `size` +parameter because a pool with a negative number of threads makes no sense. +However, a pool with zero threads also makes no sense, yet zero is a perfectly +valid `usize`. We’ll add code to check that `size` is greater than zero before +we return a `ThreadPool` instance and have the program panic if it receives a +zero by using the `assert!` macro, as shown in Listing 20-13. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl ThreadPool { + /// Create a new ThreadPool. + /// + /// The size is the number of threads in the pool. + /// + 1 /// # Panics + /// + /// The `new` function will panic if the size is zero. + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + 2 assert!(size > 0); + + ThreadPool + } + + --snip-- +} +``` + +Listing 20-13: Implementing `ThreadPool::new` to panic if `size` is zero + +We’ve also added some documentation for our `ThreadPool` with doc comments. +Note that we followed good documentation practices by adding a section that +calls out the situations in which our function can panic [1], as discussed in +Chapter 14. Try running `cargo doc --open` and clicking the `ThreadPool` struct +to see what the generated docs for `new` look like! + +Instead of adding the `assert!` macro as we’ve done here [2], we could change +`new` into `build` and return a `Result` like we did with `Config::build` in +the I/O project in Listing 12-9. But we’ve decided in this case that trying to +create a thread pool without any threads should be an unrecoverable error. If +you’re feeling ambitious, try to write a function named `build` with the +following signature to compare with the `new` function: + +``` +pub fn build( + size: usize +) -> Result { +``` + +#### Creating Space to Store the Threads + +Now that we have a way to know we have a valid number of threads to store in +the pool, we can create those threads and store them in the `ThreadPool` struct +before returning the struct. But how do we “store” a thread? Let’s take another +look at the `thread::spawn` signature: + +``` +pub fn spawn(f: F) -> JoinHandle + where + F: FnOnce() -> T, + F: Send + 'static, + T: Send + 'static, +``` + +The `spawn` function returns a `JoinHandle`, where `T` is the type that the +closure returns. Let’s try using `JoinHandle` too and see what happens. In our +case, the closures we’re passing to the thread pool will handle the connection +and not return anything, so `T` will be the unit type `()`. + +The code in Listing 20-14 will compile but doesn’t create any threads yet. +We’ve changed the definition of `ThreadPool` to hold a vector of +`thread::JoinHandle<()>` instances, initialized the vector with a capacity of +`size`, set up a `for` loop that will run some code to create the threads, and +returned a `ThreadPool` instance containing them. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +1 use std::thread; + +pub struct ThreadPool { + 2 threads: Vec>, +} + +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + assert!(size > 0); + + 3 let mut threads = Vec::with_capacity(size); + + for _ in 0..size { + // create some threads and store them in the vector + } + + ThreadPool { threads } + } + --snip-- +} +``` + +Listing 20-14: Creating a vector for `ThreadPool` to hold the threads + +We’ve brought `std::thread` into scope in the library crate [1] because we’re +using `thread::JoinHandle` as the type of the items in the vector in +`ThreadPool` [2]. + +Once a valid size is received, our `ThreadPool` creates a new vector that can +hold `size` items [3]. The `with_capacity` function performs the same task as +`Vec::new` but with an important difference: it pre-allocates space in the +vector. Because we know we need to store `size` elements in the vector, doing +this allocation up front is slightly more efficient than using `Vec::new`, +which resizes itself as elements are inserted. + +When you run `cargo check` again, it should succeed. + +#### Sending Code from the ThreadPool to a Thread + +We left a comment in the `for` loop in Listing 20-14 regarding the creation of +threads. Here, we’ll look at how we actually create threads. The standard +library provides `thread::spawn` as a way to create threads, and +`thread::spawn` expects to get some code the thread should run as soon as the +thread is created. However, in our case, we want to create the threads and have +them *wait* for code that we’ll send later. The standard library’s +implementation of threads doesn’t include any way to do that; we have to +implement it manually. + +We’ll implement this behavior by introducing a new data structure between the +`ThreadPool` and the threads that will manage this new behavior. We’ll call +this data structure *Worker*, which is a common term in pooling +implementations. The `Worker` picks up code that needs to be run and runs the +code in its thread. + +Think of people working in the kitchen at a restaurant: the workers wait until +orders come in from customers, and then they’re responsible for taking those +orders and filling them. + +Instead of storing a vector of `JoinHandle<()>` instances in the thread pool, +we’ll store instances of the `Worker` struct. Each `Worker` will store a single +`JoinHandle<()>` instance. Then we’ll implement a method on `Worker` that will +take a closure of code to run and send it to the already running thread for +execution. We’ll also give each `Worker` an `id` so we can distinguish between +the different instances of `Worker` in the pool when logging or debugging. + +Here is the new process that will happen when we create a `ThreadPool`. We’ll +implement the code that sends the closure to the thread after we have `Worker` +set up in this way: + +1. Define a `Worker` struct that holds an `id` and a `JoinHandle<()>`. +1. Change `ThreadPool` to hold a vector of `Worker` instances. +1. Define a `Worker::new` function that takes an `id` number and returns a +`Worker` instance that holds the `id` and a thread spawned with an empty +closure. +1. In `ThreadPool::new`, use the `for` loop counter to generate an `id`, create +a new `Worker` with that `id`, and store the `Worker` in the vector. + +If you’re up for a challenge, try implementing these changes on your own before +looking at the code in Listing 20-15. + +Ready? Here is Listing 20-15 with one way to make the preceding modifications. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +use std::thread; + +pub struct ThreadPool { + 1 workers: Vec, +} + +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + assert!(size > 0); + + let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); + + 2 for id in 0..size { + 3 workers.push(Worker::new(id)); + } + + ThreadPool { workers } + } + --snip-- +} + +4 struct Worker { + id: usize, + thread: thread::JoinHandle<()>, +} + +impl Worker { + 5 fn new(id: usize) -> Worker { + 6 let thread = thread::spawn(|| {}); + + Worker { 7 id, 8 thread } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-15: Modifying `ThreadPool` to hold `Worker` instances instead of +holding threads directly + +We’ve changed the name of the field on `ThreadPool` from `threads` to `workers` +because it’s now holding `Worker` instances instead of `JoinHandle<()>` +instances [1]. We use the counter in the `for` loop [2] as an argument to +`Worker::new`, and we store each new `Worker` in the vector named `workers` [3]. + +External code (like our server in *src/main.rs*) doesn’t need to know the +implementation details regarding using a `Worker` struct within `ThreadPool`, +so we make the `Worker` struct [4] and its `new` function [5] private. The +`Worker::new` function uses the `id` we give it [7] and stores a +`JoinHandle<()>` instance [8] that is created by spawning a new thread using an +empty closure [6]. + +> Note: If the operating system can’t create a thread because there aren’t +enough system resources, `thread::spawn` will panic. That will cause our whole +server to panic, even though the creation of some threads might succeed. For +simplicity’s sake, this behavior is fine, but in a production thread pool +implementation, you’d likely want to use `std::thread::Builder` and its `spawn` +method that returns `Result` instead. + +This code will compile and will store the number of `Worker` instances we +specified as an argument to `ThreadPool::new`. But we’re *still* not processing +the closure that we get in `execute`. Let’s look at how to do that next. + +#### Sending Requests to Threads via Channels + +The next problem we’ll tackle is that the closures given to `thread::spawn` do +absolutely nothing. Currently, we get the closure we want to execute in the +`execute` method. But we need to give `thread::spawn` a closure to run when we +create each `Worker` during the creation of the `ThreadPool`. + +We want the `Worker` structs that we just created to fetch the code to run from +a queue held in the `ThreadPool` and send that code to its thread to run. + +The channels we learned about in Chapter 16—a simple way to communicate between +two threads—would be perfect for this use case. We’ll use a channel to function +as the queue of jobs, and `execute` will send a job from the `ThreadPool` to +the `Worker` instances, which will send the job to its thread. Here is the plan: + +1. The `ThreadPool` will create a channel and hold on to the sender. +1. Each `Worker` will hold on to the receiver. +1. We’ll create a new `Job` struct that will hold the closures we want to send +down the channel. +1. The `execute` method will send the job it wants to execute through the +sender. +1. In its thread, the `Worker` will loop over its receiver and execute the +closures of any jobs it receives. + +Let’s start by creating a channel in `ThreadPool::new` and holding the sender +in the `ThreadPool` instance, as shown in Listing 20-16. The `Job` struct +doesn’t hold anything for now but will be the type of item we’re sending down +the channel. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +use std::{sync::mpsc, thread}; + +pub struct ThreadPool { + workers: Vec, + sender: mpsc::Sender, +} + +struct Job; + +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + assert!(size > 0); + + 1 let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); + + let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); + + for id in 0..size { + workers.push(Worker::new(id)); + } + + ThreadPool { workers, 2 sender } + } + --snip-- +} +``` + +Listing 20-16: Modifying `ThreadPool` to store the sender of a channel that +transmits `Job` instances + +In `ThreadPool::new`, we create our new channel [1] and have the pool hold the +sender [2]. This will successfully compile. + +Let’s try passing a receiver of the channel into each `Worker` as the thread +pool creates the channel. We know we want to use the receiver in the thread +that the `Worker` instances spawn, so we’ll reference the `receiver` parameter +in the closure. The code in Listing 20-17 won’t quite compile yet. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + assert!(size > 0); + + let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); + + let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); + + for id in 0..size { + 1 workers.push(Worker::new(id, receiver)); + } + + ThreadPool { workers, sender } + } + --snip-- +} + +--snip-- + +impl Worker { + fn new(id: usize, receiver: mpsc::Receiver) -> Worker { + let thread = thread::spawn(|| { + 2 receiver; + }); + + Worker { id, thread } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-17: Passing the receiver to each `Worker` + +We’ve made some small and straightforward changes: we pass the receiver into +`Worker::new` [1], and then we use it inside the closure [2]. + +When we try to check this code, we get this error: + +``` +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) +error[E0382]: use of moved value: `receiver` + --> src/lib.rs:26:42 + | +21 | let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); + | -------- move occurs because `receiver` has type +`std::sync::mpsc::Receiver`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait +... +26 | workers.push(Worker::new(id, receiver)); + | ^^^^^^^^ value moved here, in +previous iteration of loop +``` + +The code is trying to pass `receiver` to multiple `Worker` instances. This +won’t work, as you’ll recall from Chapter 16: the channel implementation that +Rust provides is multiple *producer*, single *consumer*. This means we can’t +just clone the consuming end of the channel to fix this code. We also don’t +want to send a message multiple times to multiple consumers; we want one list +of messages with multiple `Worker` instances such that each message gets +processed once. + +Additionally, taking a job off the channel queue involves mutating the +`receiver`, so the threads need a safe way to share and modify `receiver`; +otherwise, we might get race conditions (as covered in Chapter 16). + +Recall the thread-safe smart pointers discussed in Chapter 16: to share +ownership across multiple threads and allow the threads to mutate the value, we +need to use `Arc>`. The `Arc` type will let multiple `Worker` +instances own the receiver, and `Mutex` will ensure that only one `Worker` gets +a job from the receiver at a time. Listing 20-18 shows the changes we need to +make. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +use std::{ + sync::{mpsc, Arc, Mutex}, + thread, +}; +--snip-- + +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + assert!(size > 0); + + let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); + + 1 let receiver = Arc::new(Mutex::new(receiver)); + + let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); + + for id in 0..size { + workers.push( + Worker::new(id, Arc::clone(& 2 receiver)) + ); + } + + ThreadPool { workers, sender } + } + + --snip-- +} + +--snip-- + +impl Worker { + fn new( + id: usize, + receiver: Arc>>, + ) -> Worker { + --snip-- + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-18: Sharing the receiver among the `Worker` instances using `Arc` +and `Mutex` + +In `ThreadPool::new`, we put the receiver in an `Arc` and a `Mutex` [1]. For +each new `Worker`, we clone the `Arc` to bump the reference count so the +`Worker` instances can share ownership of the receiver [2]. + +With these changes, the code compiles! We’re getting there! + +#### Implementing the execute Method + +Let’s finally implement the `execute` method on `ThreadPool`. We’ll also change +`Job` from a struct to a type alias for a trait object that holds the type of +closure that `execute` receives. As discussed in “Creating Type Synonyms with +Type Aliases” on page XX, type aliases allow us to make long types shorter for +ease of use. Look at Listing 20-19. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +--snip-- + +type Job = Box; + +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + + pub fn execute(&self, f: F) + where + F: FnOnce() + Send + 'static, + { + 1 let job = Box::new(f); + + 2 self.sender.send(job).unwrap(); + } +} + +--snip-- +``` + +Listing 20-19: Creating a `Job` type alias for a `Box` that holds each closure +and then sending the job down the channel + +After creating a new `Job` instance using the closure we get in `execute` [1], +we send that job down the sending end of the channel [2]. We’re calling +`unwrap` on `send` for the case that sending fails. This might happen if, for +example, we stop all our threads from executing, meaning the receiving end has +stopped receiving new messages. At the moment, we can’t stop our threads from +executing: our threads continue executing as long as the pool exists. The +reason we use `unwrap` is that we know the failure case won’t happen, but the +compiler doesn’t know that. + +But we’re not quite done yet! In the `Worker`, our closure being passed to +`thread::spawn` still only *references* the receiving end of the channel. +Instead, we need the closure to loop forever, asking the receiving end of the +channel for a job and running the job when it gets one. Let’s make the change +shown in Listing 20-20 to `Worker::new`. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +--snip-- + +impl Worker { + fn new( + id: usize, + receiver: Arc>>, + ) -> Worker { + let thread = thread::spawn(move || loop { + let job = receiver + 1 .lock() + 2 .unwrap() + 3 .recv() + 4 .unwrap(); + + println!("Worker {id} got a job; executing."); + + job(); + }); + + Worker { id, thread } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-20: Receiving and executing the jobs in the `Worker` instance’s +thread + +Here, we first call `lock` on the `receiver` to acquire the mutex [1], and then +we call `unwrap` to panic on any errors [2]. Acquiring a lock might fail if the +mutex is in a *poisoned* state, which can happen if some other thread panicked +while holding the lock rather than releasing the lock. In this situation, +calling `unwrap` to have this thread panic is the correct action to take. Feel +free to change this `unwrap` to an `expect` with an error message that is +meaningful to you. + +If we get the lock on the mutex, we call `recv` to receive a `Job` from the +channel [3]. A final `unwrap` moves past any errors here as well [4], which +might occur if the thread holding the sender has shut down, similar to how the +`send` method returns `Err` if the receiver shuts down. + +The call to `recv` blocks, so if there is no job yet, the current thread will +wait until a job becomes available. The `Mutex` ensures that only one +`Worker` thread at a time is trying to request a job. + +Our thread pool is now in a working state! Give it a `cargo run` and make some +requests: + +``` +$ cargo run + Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) +warning: field is never read: `workers` + --> src/lib.rs:7:5 + | +7 | workers: Vec, + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + | + = note: `#[warn(dead_code)]` on by default + +warning: field is never read: `id` + --> src/lib.rs:48:5 + | +48 | id: usize, + | ^^^^^^^^^ + +warning: field is never read: `thread` + --> src/lib.rs:49:5 + | +49 | thread: thread::JoinHandle<()>, + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +warning: `hello` (lib) generated 3 warnings + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.40s + Running `target/debug/hello` +Worker 0 got a job; executing. +Worker 2 got a job; executing. +Worker 1 got a job; executing. +Worker 3 got a job; executing. +Worker 0 got a job; executing. +Worker 2 got a job; executing. +Worker 1 got a job; executing. +Worker 3 got a job; executing. +Worker 0 got a job; executing. +Worker 2 got a job; executing. +``` + +Success! We now have a thread pool that executes connections asynchronously. +There are never more than four threads created, so our system won’t get +overloaded if the server receives a lot of requests. If we make a request to +*/sleep*, the server will be able to serve other requests by having another +thread run them. + +> Note: If you open */sleep* in multiple browser windows simultaneously, they +might load one at a time in five-second intervals. Some web browsers execute +multiple instances of the same request sequentially for caching reasons. This +limitation is not caused by our web server. + +After learning about the `while let` loop in Chapter 18, you might be wondering +why we didn’t write the `Worker` thread code as shown in Listing 20-21. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +--snip-- + +impl Worker { + fn new( + id: usize, + receiver: Arc>>, + ) -> Worker { + let thread = thread::spawn(move || { + while let Ok(job) = receiver.lock().unwrap().recv() { + println!("Worker {id} got a job; executing."); + + job(); + } + }); + + Worker { id, thread } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-21: An alternative implementation of `Worker::new` using `while let` + +This code compiles and runs but doesn’t result in the desired threading +behavior: a slow request will still cause other requests to wait to be +processed. The reason is somewhat subtle: the `Mutex` struct has no public +`unlock` method because the ownership of the lock is based on the lifetime of +the `MutexGuard` within the `LockResult>` that the `lock` +method returns. At compile time, the borrow checker can then enforce the rule +that a resource guarded by a `Mutex` cannot be accessed unless we hold the +lock. However, this implementation can also result in the lock being held +longer than intended if we aren’t mindful of the lifetime of the +`MutexGuard`. + +The code in Listing 20-20 that uses `let job = +receiver.lock().unwrap().recv().unwrap();` works because with `let`, any +temporary values used in the expression on the right-hand side of the equal +sign are immediately dropped when the `let` statement ends. However, `while +let` (and `if let` and `match`) does not drop temporary values until the end of +the associated block. In Listing 20-21, the lock remains held for the duration +of the call to `job()`, meaning other `Worker` instances cannot receive jobs. + +## Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup + +The code in Listing 20-20 is responding to requests asynchronously through the +use of a thread pool, as we intended. We get some warnings about the `workers`, +`id`, and `thread` fields that we’re not using in a direct way that reminds us +we’re not cleaning up anything. When we use the less elegant ctrl-C method to +halt the main thread, all other threads are stopped immediately as well, even +if they’re in the middle of serving a request. + +Next, then, we’ll implement the `Drop` trait to call `join` on each of the +threads in the pool so they can finish the requests they’re working on before +closing. Then we’ll implement a way to tell the threads they should stop +accepting new requests and shut down. To see this code in action, we’ll modify +our server to accept only two requests before gracefully shutting down its +thread pool. + +### Implementing the Drop Trait on ThreadPool + +Let’s start with implementing `Drop` on our thread pool. When the pool is +dropped, our threads should all join to make sure they finish their work. +Listing 20-22 shows a first attempt at a `Drop` implementation; this code won’t +quite work yet. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl Drop for ThreadPool { + fn drop(&mut self) { + 1 for worker in &mut self.workers { + 2 println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); + + 3 worker.thread.join().unwrap(); + } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-22: Joining each thread when the thread pool goes out of scope + +First we loop through each of the thread pool `workers` [1]. We use `&mut` for +this because `self` is a mutable reference, and we also need to be able to +mutate `worker`. For each `worker`, we print a message saying that this +particular `Worker` instance is shutting down [2], and then we call `join` on +that `Worker` instance’s thread [3]. If the call to `join` fails, we use +`unwrap` to make Rust panic and go into an ungraceful shutdown. + +Here is the error we get when we compile this code: + +``` +error[E0507]: cannot move out of `worker.thread` which is behind a mutable +reference + --> src/lib.rs:52:13 + | +52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ------ `worker.thread` moved due to this +method call + | | + | move occurs because `worker.thread` has type +`JoinHandle<()>`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait + | +note: this function takes ownership of the receiver `self`, which moves +`worker.thread` +``` + +The error tells us we can’t call `join` because we only have a mutable borrow +of each `worker` and `join` takes ownership of its argument. To solve this +issue, we need to move the thread out of the `Worker` instance that owns +`thread` so `join` can consume the thread. We did this in Listing 17-15: if +`Worker` holds an `Option>` instead, we can call the +`take` method on the `Option` to move the value out of the `Some` variant and +leave a `None` variant in its place. In other words, a `Worker` that is running +will have a `Some` variant in `thread`, and when we want to clean up a +`Worker`, we’ll replace `Some` with `None` so the `Worker` doesn’t have a +thread to run. + +So we know we want to update the definition of `Worker` like this: + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +struct Worker { + id: usize, + thread: Option>, +} +``` + +Now let’s lean on the compiler to find the other places that need to change. +Checking this code, we get two errors: + +``` +error[E0599]: no method named `join` found for enum `Option` in the current +scope + --> src/lib.rs:52:27 + | +52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); + | ^^^^ method not found in +`Option>` + +error[E0308]: mismatched types + --> src/lib.rs:72:22 + | +72 | Worker { id, thread } + | ^^^^^^ expected enum `Option`, found struct +`JoinHandle` + | + = note: expected enum `Option>` + found struct `JoinHandle<_>` +help: try wrapping the expression in `Some` + | +72 | Worker { id, thread: Some(thread) } + | +++++++++++++ + +``` + +Let’s address the second error, which points to the code at the end of +`Worker::new`; we need to wrap the `thread` value in `Some` when we create a +new `Worker`. Make the following changes to fix this error: + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl Worker { + fn new( + id: usize, + receiver: Arc>>, + ) -> Worker { + --snip-- + + Worker { + id, + thread: Some(thread), + } + } +} +``` + +The first error is in our `Drop` implementation. We mentioned earlier that we +intended to call `take` on the `Option` value to move `thread` out of `worker`. +The following changes will do so: + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl Drop for ThreadPool { + fn drop(&mut self) { + for worker in &mut self.workers { + println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); + + 1 if let Some(thread) = worker.thread.take() { + 2 thread.join().unwrap(); + } + } + } +} +``` + +As discussed in Chapter 17, the `take` method on `Option` takes the `Some` +variant out and leaves `None` in its place. We’re using `if let` to destructure +the `Some` and get the thread [1]; then we call `join` on the thread [2]. If a +`Worker` instance’s thread is already `None`, we know that `Worker` has already +had its thread cleaned up, so nothing happens in that case. + +### Signaling to the Threads to Stop Listening for Jobs + +With all the changes we’ve made, our code compiles without any warnings. +However, the bad news is that this code doesn’t function the way we want it to +yet. The key is the logic in the closures run by the threads of the `Worker` +instances: at the moment, we call `join`, but that won’t shut down the threads, +because they `loop` forever looking for jobs. If we try to drop our +`ThreadPool` with our current implementation of `drop`, the main thread will +block forever, waiting for the first thread to finish. + +To fix this problem, we’ll need a change in the `ThreadPool` `drop` +implementation and then a change in the `Worker` loop. + +First we’ll change the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation to explicitly drop +the `sender` before waiting for the threads to finish. Listing 20-23 shows the +changes to `ThreadPool` to explicitly drop `sender`. We use the same `Option` +and `take` technique as we did with the thread to be able to move `sender` out +of `ThreadPool`. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +pub struct ThreadPool { + workers: Vec, + sender: Option>, +} +--snip-- +impl ThreadPool { + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + --snip-- + + ThreadPool { + workers, + sender: Some(sender), + } + } + + pub fn execute(&self, f: F) + where + F: FnOnce() + Send + 'static, + { + let job = Box::new(f); + + self.sender + .as_ref() + .unwrap() + .send(job) + .unwrap(); + } +} + +impl Drop for ThreadPool { + fn drop(&mut self) { + 1 drop(self.sender.take()); + + for worker in &mut self.workers { + println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); + + if let Some(thread) = worker.thread.take() { + thread.join().unwrap(); + } + } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-23: Explicitly dropping `sender` before joining the `Worker` threads + +Dropping `sender` [1] closes the channel, which indicates no more messages will +be sent. When that happens, all the calls to `recv` that the `Worker` instances +do in the infinite loop will return an error. In Listing 20-24, we change the +`Worker` loop to gracefully exit the loop in that case, which means the threads +will finish when the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation calls `join` on them. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl Worker { + fn new( + id: usize, + receiver: Arc>>, + ) -> Worker { + let thread = thread::spawn(move || loop { + let message = receiver.lock().unwrap().recv(); + + match message { + Ok(job) => { + println!( + "Worker {id} got a job; executing." + ); + + job(); + } + Err(_) => { + println!( + "Worker {id} shutting down." + ); + break; + } + } + }); + + Worker { + id, + thread: Some(thread), + } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-24: Explicitly breaking out of the loop when `recv` returns an error + +To see this code in action, let’s modify `main` to accept only two requests +before gracefully shutting down the server, as shown in Listing 20-25. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming().take(2) { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } + + println!("Shutting down."); +} +``` + +Listing 20-25: Shutting down the server after serving two requests by exiting +the loop + +You wouldn’t want a real-world web server to shut down after serving only two +requests. This code just demonstrates that the graceful shutdown and cleanup is +in working order. + +The `take` method is defined in the `Iterator` trait and limits the iteration +to the first two items at most. The `ThreadPool` will go out of scope at the +end of `main`, and the `drop` implementation will run. + +Start the server with `cargo run`, and make three requests. The third request +should error, and in your terminal you should see output similar to this: + +``` +$ cargo run + Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.0s + Running `target/debug/hello` +Worker 0 got a job; executing. +Shutting down. +Shutting down worker 0 +Worker 3 got a job; executing. +Worker 1 disconnected; shutting down. +Worker 2 disconnected; shutting down. +Worker 3 disconnected; shutting down. +Worker 0 disconnected; shutting down. +Shutting down worker 1 +Shutting down worker 2 +Shutting down worker 3 +``` + +You might see a different ordering of `Worker` IDs and messages printed. We can +see how this code works from the messages: `Worker` instances 0 and 3 got the +first two requests. The server stopped accepting connections after the second +connection, and the `Drop` implementation on `ThreadPool` starts executing +before `Worker` 3 even starts its job. Dropping the `sender` disconnects all +the `Worker` instances and tells them to shut down. The `Worker` instances each +print a message when they disconnect, and then the thread pool calls `join` to +wait for each `Worker` thread to finish. + +Notice one interesting aspect of this particular execution: the `ThreadPool` +dropped the `sender`, and before any `Worker` received an error, we tried to +join `Worker` 0. `Worker` 0 had not yet gotten an error from `recv`, so the +main thread blocked, waiting for `Worker` 0 to finish. In the meantime, +`Worker` 3 received a job and then all threads received an error. When `Worker` +0 finished, the main thread waited for the rest of the `Worker` instances to +finish. At that point, they had all exited their loops and stopped. + +Congrats! We’ve now completed our project; we have a basic web server that uses +a thread pool to respond asynchronously. We’re able to perform a graceful +shutdown of the server, which cleans up all the threads in the pool. See +*https://www.nostarch.com/Rust2021* to download the full code for this chapter +for reference. + +We could do more here! If you want to continue enhancing this project, here are +some ideas: + +* Add more documentation to `ThreadPool` and its public methods. +* Add tests of the library’s functionality. +* Change calls to `unwrap` to more robust error handling. +* Use `ThreadPool` to perform some task other than serving web requests. +* Find a thread pool crate on *https://crates.io* and implement a similar web +server using the crate instead. Then compare its API and robustness to the +thread pool we implemented. + +## Summary + +Well done! You’ve made it to the end of the book! We want to thank you for +joining us on this tour of Rust. You’re now ready to implement your own Rust +projects and help with other people’s projects. Keep in mind that there is a +welcoming community of other Rustaceans who would love to help you with any +challenges you encounter on your Rust journey. + diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/Cargo.lock b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/Cargo.lock index dba6f2098..c61da8a7f 100644 --- a/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/Cargo.lock +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/Cargo.lock @@ -362,6 +362,21 @@ version = "0.5.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" checksum = "2304e00983f87ffb38b55b444b5e3b60a884b5d30c0fca7d82fe33449bbe55ea" +[[package]] +name = "html_parser" +version = "0.7.0" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "f6f56db07b6612644f6f7719f8ef944f75fff9d6378fdf3d316fd32194184abd" +dependencies = [ + "doc-comment", + "pest", + "pest_derive", + "serde", + "serde_derive", + "serde_json", + "thiserror", +] + [[package]] name = "humantime" version = "2.1.0" @@ -482,13 +497,13 @@ version = "0.1.0" dependencies = [ "assert_cmd", "clap", + "html_parser", "mdbook", "pulldown-cmark", "pulldown-cmark-to-cmark", "serde_json", "thiserror", "toml 0.8.13", - "xmlparser", ] [[package]] @@ -1162,9 +1177,3 @@ checksum = "c3c52e9c97a68071b23e836c9380edae937f17b9c4667bd021973efc689f618d" dependencies = [ "memchr", ] - -[[package]] -name = "xmlparser" -version = "0.13.6" -source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "66fee0b777b0f5ac1c69bb06d361268faafa61cd4682ae064a171c16c433e9e4" diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/Cargo.toml b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/Cargo.toml index 4cf009b3f..4b90001e2 100644 --- a/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/Cargo.toml +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/Cargo.toml @@ -7,13 +7,18 @@ edition = "2021" [dependencies] clap = { version = "4", features = ["derive"] } +html_parser = "0.7.0" mdbook = { version = "0.4", default-features = false } # only need the library pulldown-cmark = { version = "0.10", features = ["simd"] } pulldown-cmark-to-cmark = "13" serde_json = "1" thiserror = "1.0.60" toml = "0.8.12" -xmlparser = "0.13.6" [dev-dependencies] assert_cmd = "2" + +# This package is used as a path dependency in `rust-lang/rust`, not published +# to crates.io, so it cannot be part of the `rust-lang/book` workspace, because +# path dependencies do not get built as a crate within the hosting workspace. +[workspace] diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/lib.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/lib.rs index af817ff21..c4ff14e44 100644 --- a/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/lib.rs +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/lib.rs @@ -1,3 +1,4 @@ +use html_parser::Dom; use mdbook::{ book::Book, errors::Result, @@ -7,7 +8,6 @@ use mdbook::{ }; use pulldown_cmark::{html, Event}; use pulldown_cmark_to_cmark::cmark; -use xmlparser::{Token, Tokenizer}; /// A preprocessor for rendering listings more elegantly. /// @@ -98,7 +98,7 @@ impl Preprocessor for TrplListing { } fn supports_renderer(&self, renderer: &str) -> bool { - renderer == "html" + renderer == "html" || renderer == "markdown" || renderer == "test" } } @@ -139,104 +139,29 @@ impl TryFrom<&str> for Mode { } fn rewrite_listing(src: &str, mode: Mode) -> Result { - let parser = new_cmark_parser(src, true); - - struct State<'e> { - current_listing: Option, - events: Vec, String>>, - } - - let final_state = parser.fold( - State { - current_listing: None, + let final_state = new_cmark_parser(src, true).try_fold( + ListingState { + current: None, events: vec![], }, |mut state, ev| { match ev { Event::Html(tag) => { if tag.starts_with(" { - match local.as_str() { - "number" => builder - .with_number(value.as_str()), - "caption" => builder - .with_caption(value.as_str()), - "file-name" => builder - .with_file_name(value.as_str()), - _ => builder, // TODO: error on extra attrs? - } - } - _ => builder, - } - }) - .build(); - - match listing_result { - Ok(listing) => { - let opening_event = match mode { - Mode::Default => { - let opening_html = - listing.opening_html(); - Event::Html(opening_html.into()) - } - Mode::Simple => { - let opening_text = - listing.opening_text(); - Event::Text(opening_text.into()) - } - }; - - state.current_listing = Some(listing); - state.events.push(Ok(opening_event)); - } - Err(reason) => state.events.push(Err(reason)), - } + state.open_listing(tag, mode)?; } else if tag.starts_with("") { - let trailing = if !tag.ends_with('>') { - tag.replace("", "") - } else { - String::from("") - }; - - match state.current_listing { - Some(listing) => { - let closing_event = match mode { - Mode::Default => { - let closing_html = - listing.closing_html(&trailing); - Event::Html(closing_html.into()) - } - Mode::Simple => { - let closing_text = - listing.closing_text(&trailing); - Event::Text(closing_text.into()) - } - }; - - state.current_listing = None; - state.events.push(Ok(closing_event)); - } - None => state.events.push(Err(String::from( - "Closing `` without opening tag.", - ))), - } + state.close_listing(tag, mode); } else { state.events.push(Ok(Event::Html(tag))); } } ev => state.events.push(Ok(ev)), }; - state + Ok::, String>(state) }, - ); + )?; - if final_state.current_listing.is_some() { + if final_state.current.is_some() { return Err("Unclosed listing".into()); } @@ -257,10 +182,108 @@ fn rewrite_listing(src: &str, mode: Mode) -> Result { Ok(buf) } +struct ListingState<'e> { + current: Option, + events: Vec, String>>, +} + +impl<'e> ListingState<'e> { + fn open_listing( + &mut self, + tag: pulldown_cmark::CowStr<'_>, + mode: Mode, + ) -> Result<(), String> { + // We do not *keep* the version constructed here, just temporarily + // construct it so the HTML parser, which expects properly closed tags + // to parse it as a *tag* rather than a *weird text node*, will accept + // it and provide a useful view of it. + let to_parse = tag.to_owned().to_string() + ""; + let listing = Dom::parse(&to_parse) + .map_err(|e| e.to_string())? + .children + .into_iter() + .filter_map(|node| match node { + html_parser::Node::Element(element) => Some(element.attributes), + html_parser::Node::Text(_) | html_parser::Node::Comment(_) => { + None + } + }) + .flatten() + .try_fold(ListingBuilder::new(), |builder, (key, maybe_value)| { + match (key.as_str(), maybe_value) { + ("number", Some(value)) => Ok(builder.with_number(value)), + + ("caption", Some(value)) => Ok(builder.with_caption(value)), + + ("file-name", Some(value)) => { + Ok(builder.with_file_name(value)) + } + + (attr @ "file-name", None) + | (attr @ "caption", None) + | (attr @ "number", None) => { + Err(format!("Missing value for attribute: '{attr}'")) + } + + (attr, _) => { + Err(format!("Unsupported attribute name: '{attr}'")) + } + } + })? + .build(); + + let opening_event = match mode { + Mode::Default => { + let opening_html = listing.opening_html(); + Event::Html(opening_html.into()) + } + Mode::Simple => { + let opening_text = listing.opening_text(); + Event::Text(opening_text.into()) + } + }; + + self.current = Some(listing); + self.events.push(Ok(opening_event)); + Ok(()) + } + + fn close_listing(&mut self, tag: pulldown_cmark::CowStr<'_>, mode: Mode) { + let trailing = if !tag.ends_with('>') { + tag.replace("", "") + } else { + String::from("") + }; + + match &self.current { + Some(listing) => { + let closing_event = match mode { + Mode::Default => { + let closing_html = listing.closing_html(&trailing); + Event::Html(closing_html.into()) + } + Mode::Simple => { + let closing_text = listing.closing_text(&trailing); + Event::Text(closing_text.into()) + } + }; + + self.current = None; + self.events.push(Ok(closing_event)); + } + None => { + self.events.push(Err(String::from( + "Closing `` without opening tag.", + ))); + } + } + } +} + #[derive(Debug)] struct Listing { - number: String, - caption: String, + number: Option, + caption: Option, file_name: Option, } @@ -277,12 +300,21 @@ impl Listing { } fn closing_html(&self, trailing: &str) -> String { - format!( - r#"
Listing {number}: {caption}
-{trailing}"#, - number = self.number, - caption = self.caption - ) + match (&self.number, &self.caption) { + (Some(number), Some(caption)) => format!( + r#"
Listing {number}: {caption}
+{trailing}"# + ), + (None, Some(caption)) => format!( + r#"
{caption}
+{trailing}"# + ), + (Some(number), None) => format!( + r#"
Listing {number}
+{trailing}"# + ), + (None, None) => format!("{trailing}"), + } } fn opening_text(&self) -> String { @@ -293,22 +325,25 @@ impl Listing { } fn closing_text(&self, trailing: &str) -> String { - format!( - "Listing {number}: {caption}{trailing}", - number = self.number, - caption = self.caption, - ) + match (&self.number, &self.caption) { + (Some(number), Some(caption)) => { + format!("Listing {number}: {caption}{trailing}") + } + (None, Some(caption)) => format!("{caption}{trailing}"), + (Some(number), None) => format!("Listing {number}{trailing}"), + (None, None) => trailing.into(), + } } } -struct ListingBuilder<'a> { - number: Option<&'a str>, - caption: Option<&'a str>, - file_name: Option<&'a str>, +struct ListingBuilder { + number: Option, + caption: Option, + file_name: Option, } -impl<'a> ListingBuilder<'a> { - fn new() -> ListingBuilder<'a> { +impl ListingBuilder { + fn new() -> ListingBuilder { ListingBuilder { number: None, caption: None, @@ -316,432 +351,40 @@ impl<'a> ListingBuilder<'a> { } } - fn with_number(mut self, value: &'a str) -> Self { + fn with_number(mut self, value: String) -> Self { self.number = Some(value); self } - fn with_caption(mut self, value: &'a str) -> Self { + fn with_caption(mut self, value: String) -> Self { self.caption = Some(value); self } - fn with_file_name(mut self, value: &'a str) -> Self { + fn with_file_name(mut self, value: String) -> Self { self.file_name = Some(value); self } - fn build(self) -> Result { - let number = self - .number - .ok_or_else(|| String::from("Missing number"))? - .to_owned(); - - let caption = self - .caption - .map(|caption_source| { - let events = new_cmark_parser(caption_source, true); - let mut buf = String::with_capacity(caption_source.len() * 2); - html::push_html(&mut buf, events); - - // This is not particularly principled, but since the only - // place it is used is here, for caption source handling, it - // is “fine”. - buf.replace("

", "").replace("

", "").replace('\n', "") - }) - .ok_or_else(|| String::from("Missing caption"))? - .to_owned(); + fn build(self) -> Listing { + let caption = self.caption.map(|caption_source| { + let events = new_cmark_parser(&caption_source, true); + let mut buf = String::with_capacity(caption_source.len() * 2); + html::push_html(&mut buf, events); - Ok(Listing { - number, + // This is not particularly principled, but since the only + // place it is used is here, for caption source handling, it + // is “fine”. + buf.replace("

", "").replace("

", "").replace('\n', "") + }); + + Listing { + number: self.number.map(String::from), caption, file_name: self.file_name.map(String::from), - }) + } } } #[cfg(test)] -mod tests { - use super::*; - - /// Note: This inserts an additional backtick around the re-emitted code. - /// It is not clear *why*, but that seems to be an artifact of the rendering - /// done by the `pulldown_cmark_to_cmark` crate. - #[test] - fn default_mode_works() { - let result = rewrite_listing( - r#"- -```rust -fn main() {} -``` - -"#, - Mode::Default, - ); - - assert_eq!( - &result.unwrap(), - r#"
-Filename: src/main.rs - -````rust -fn main() {} -```` - -
Listing 1-2: A write-up which might include inline Markdown like code etc.
-
"# - ); - } - - #[test] - fn simple_mode_works() { - let result = rewrite_listing( - r#"- -```rust -fn main() {} -``` - -"#, - Mode::Simple, - ); - - assert_eq!( - &result.unwrap(), - r#" -Filename: src/main.rs - -````rust -fn main() {} -```` - -Listing 1-2: A write-up which might include inline Markdown like code etc."# - ); - } - - #[test] - fn actual_listing() { - let result = rewrite_listing( - r#"Now open the *main.rs* file you just created and enter the code in Listing 1-1. - -- -```rust -fn main() { - println!("Hello, world!"); -} -``` - - - -Save the file and go back to your terminal window"#, - Mode::Default, - ); - - assert!(result.is_ok()); - assert_eq!( - result.unwrap(), - r#"Now open the *main.rs* file you just created and enter the code in Listing 1-1. - -
-Filename: main.rs - -````rust -fn main() { - println!("Hello, world!"); -} -```` - -
Listing 1-1: A program that prints Hello, world!
-
- -Save the file and go back to your terminal window"# - ); - } - - #[test] - fn no_filename() { - let result = rewrite_listing( - r#"This is the opening. - -- -```rust -fn main() {} -``` - - - -This is the closing."#, - Mode::Default, - ); - - assert!(result.is_ok()); - assert_eq!( - result.unwrap(), - r#"This is the opening. - -
- -````rust -fn main() {} -```` - -
Listing 1-1: This is the caption
-
- -This is the closing."# - ); - } - - /// Check that the config options are correctly handled. - /// - /// Note: none of these tests particularly exercise the *wiring*. They just - /// assume that the config itself is done correctly. This is a small enough - /// chunk of code that it easy to verify by hand at present. If it becomes - /// more complex in the future, it would be good to revisit and integrate - /// the same kinds of tests as the unit tests above here. - #[cfg(test)] - mod config { - use super::*; - - // TODO: what *should* the behavior here be? I *think* it should error, - // in that there is a problem if it is invoked without that info. - #[test] - fn no_config() { - let input_json = r##"[ - { - "root": "/path/to/book", - "config": { - "book": { - "authors": ["AUTHOR"], - "language": "en", - "multilingual": false, - "src": "src", - "title": "TITLE" - }, - "preprocessor": {} - }, - "renderer": "html", - "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" - }, - { - "sections": [ - { - "Chapter": { - "name": "Chapter 1", - "content": "# Chapter 1\n", - "number": [1], - "sub_items": [], - "path": "chapter_1.md", - "source_path": "chapter_1.md", - "parent_names": [] - } - } - ], - "__non_exhaustive": null - } - ]"##; - let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); - let (ctx, book) = - mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json) - .unwrap(); - let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); - assert!(result.is_err()); - let err = result.unwrap_err(); - assert_eq!(format!("{err}"), "No config for trpl-listing"); - } - - #[test] - fn empty_config() { - let input_json = r##"[ - { - "root": "/path/to/book", - "config": { - "book": { - "authors": ["AUTHOR"], - "language": "en", - "multilingual": false, - "src": "src", - "title": "TITLE" - }, - "preprocessor": { - "trpl-listing": {} - } - }, - "renderer": "html", - "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" - }, - { - "sections": [ - { - "Chapter": { - "name": "Chapter 1", - "content": "# Chapter 1\n", - "number": [1], - "sub_items": [], - "path": "chapter_1.md", - "source_path": "chapter_1.md", - "parent_names": [] - } - } - ], - "__non_exhaustive": null - } - ]"##; - let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); - let (ctx, book) = - mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json) - .unwrap(); - let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); - assert!(result.is_ok()); - } - - #[test] - fn specify_default() { - let input_json = r##"[ - { - "root": "/path/to/book", - "config": { - "book": { - "authors": ["AUTHOR"], - "language": "en", - "multilingual": false, - "src": "src", - "title": "TITLE" - }, - "preprocessor": { - "trpl-listing": { - "output-mode": "default" - } - } - }, - "renderer": "html", - "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" - }, - { - "sections": [ - { - "Chapter": { - "name": "Chapter 1", - "content": "# Chapter 1\n", - "number": [1], - "sub_items": [], - "path": "chapter_1.md", - "source_path": "chapter_1.md", - "parent_names": [] - } - } - ], - "__non_exhaustive": null - } - ]"##; - let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); - let (ctx, book) = - mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json) - .unwrap(); - let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); - assert!(result.is_ok()); - } - - #[test] - fn specify_simple() { - let input_json = r##"[ - { - "root": "/path/to/book", - "config": { - "book": { - "authors": ["AUTHOR"], - "language": "en", - "multilingual": false, - "src": "src", - "title": "TITLE" - }, - "preprocessor": { - "trpl-listing": { - "output-mode": "simple" - } - } - }, - "renderer": "html", - "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" - }, - { - "sections": [ - { - "Chapter": { - "name": "Chapter 1", - "content": "# Chapter 1\n", - "number": [1], - "sub_items": [], - "path": "chapter_1.md", - "source_path": "chapter_1.md", - "parent_names": [] - } - } - ], - "__non_exhaustive": null - } - ]"##; - let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); - let (ctx, book) = - mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json) - .unwrap(); - let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); - assert!(result.is_ok()); - } - - #[test] - fn specify_invalid() { - let input_json = r##"[ - { - "root": "/path/to/book", - "config": { - "book": { - "authors": ["AUTHOR"], - "language": "en", - "multilingual": false, - "src": "src", - "title": "TITLE" - }, - "preprocessor": { - "trpl-listing": { - "output-mode": "nonsense" - } - } - }, - "renderer": "html", - "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" - }, - { - "sections": [ - { - "Chapter": { - "name": "Chapter 1", - "content": "# Chapter 1\n", - "number": [1], - "sub_items": [], - "path": "chapter_1.md", - "source_path": "chapter_1.md", - "parent_names": [] - } - } - ], - "__non_exhaustive": null - } - ]"##; - let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); - let (ctx, book) = - mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json) - .unwrap(); - let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); - assert!(result.is_err()); - let err = result.unwrap_err(); - assert_eq!( - format!("{err}"), - "Bad config value '\"nonsense\"' for key 'output-mode'" - ); - } - } -} +mod tests; diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/tests/config.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/tests/config.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d44004b3e --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/tests/config.rs @@ -0,0 +1,242 @@ +//! Check that the config options are correctly handled. +//! +//! Note: none of these tests particularly exercise the *wiring*. They just +//! assume that the config itself is done correctly. This is a small enough +//! chunk of code that it easy to verify by hand at present. If it becomes +//! more complex in the future, it would be good to revisit and integrate +//! the same kinds of tests as the unit tests above here. + +use super::*; + +// TODO: what *should* the behavior here be? I *think* it should error, +// in that there is a problem if it is invoked without that info. +#[test] +fn no_config() { + let input_json = r##"[ + { + "root": "/path/to/book", + "config": { + "book": { + "authors": ["AUTHOR"], + "language": "en", + "multilingual": false, + "src": "src", + "title": "TITLE" + }, + "preprocessor": {} + }, + "renderer": "html", + "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" + }, + { + "sections": [ + { + "Chapter": { + "name": "Chapter 1", + "content": "# Chapter 1\n", + "number": [1], + "sub_items": [], + "path": "chapter_1.md", + "source_path": "chapter_1.md", + "parent_names": [] + } + } + ], + "__non_exhaustive": null + } + ]"##; + let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); + let (ctx, book) = + mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json).unwrap(); + let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); + assert!(result.is_err()); + let err = result.unwrap_err(); + assert_eq!(format!("{err}"), "No config for trpl-listing"); +} + +#[test] +fn empty_config() { + let input_json = r##"[ + { + "root": "/path/to/book", + "config": { + "book": { + "authors": ["AUTHOR"], + "language": "en", + "multilingual": false, + "src": "src", + "title": "TITLE" + }, + "preprocessor": { + "trpl-listing": {} + } + }, + "renderer": "html", + "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" + }, + { + "sections": [ + { + "Chapter": { + "name": "Chapter 1", + "content": "# Chapter 1\n", + "number": [1], + "sub_items": [], + "path": "chapter_1.md", + "source_path": "chapter_1.md", + "parent_names": [] + } + } + ], + "__non_exhaustive": null + } + ]"##; + let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); + let (ctx, book) = + mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json).unwrap(); + let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); + assert!(result.is_ok()); +} + +#[test] +fn specify_default() { + let input_json = r##"[ + { + "root": "/path/to/book", + "config": { + "book": { + "authors": ["AUTHOR"], + "language": "en", + "multilingual": false, + "src": "src", + "title": "TITLE" + }, + "preprocessor": { + "trpl-listing": { + "output-mode": "default" + } + } + }, + "renderer": "html", + "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" + }, + { + "sections": [ + { + "Chapter": { + "name": "Chapter 1", + "content": "# Chapter 1\n", + "number": [1], + "sub_items": [], + "path": "chapter_1.md", + "source_path": "chapter_1.md", + "parent_names": [] + } + } + ], + "__non_exhaustive": null + } + ]"##; + let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); + let (ctx, book) = + mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json).unwrap(); + let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); + assert!(result.is_ok()); +} + +#[test] +fn specify_simple() { + let input_json = r##"[ + { + "root": "/path/to/book", + "config": { + "book": { + "authors": ["AUTHOR"], + "language": "en", + "multilingual": false, + "src": "src", + "title": "TITLE" + }, + "preprocessor": { + "trpl-listing": { + "output-mode": "simple" + } + } + }, + "renderer": "html", + "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" + }, + { + "sections": [ + { + "Chapter": { + "name": "Chapter 1", + "content": "# Chapter 1\n", + "number": [1], + "sub_items": [], + "path": "chapter_1.md", + "source_path": "chapter_1.md", + "parent_names": [] + } + } + ], + "__non_exhaustive": null + } + ]"##; + let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); + let (ctx, book) = + mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json).unwrap(); + let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); + assert!(result.is_ok()); +} + +#[test] +fn specify_invalid() { + let input_json = r##"[ + { + "root": "/path/to/book", + "config": { + "book": { + "authors": ["AUTHOR"], + "language": "en", + "multilingual": false, + "src": "src", + "title": "TITLE" + }, + "preprocessor": { + "trpl-listing": { + "output-mode": "nonsense" + } + } + }, + "renderer": "html", + "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" + }, + { + "sections": [ + { + "Chapter": { + "name": "Chapter 1", + "content": "# Chapter 1\n", + "number": [1], + "sub_items": [], + "path": "chapter_1.md", + "source_path": "chapter_1.md", + "parent_names": [] + } + } + ], + "__non_exhaustive": null + } + ]"##; + let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); + let (ctx, book) = + mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json).unwrap(); + let result = TrplListing.run(&ctx, book); + assert!(result.is_err()); + let err = result.unwrap_err(); + assert_eq!( + format!("{err}"), + "Bad config value '\"nonsense\"' for key 'output-mode'" + ); +} diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/tests/mod.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/tests/mod.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..224b14fe5 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl-listing/src/tests/mod.rs @@ -0,0 +1,295 @@ +use super::*; + +/// Note: This inserts an additional backtick around the re-emitted code. +/// It is not clear *why*, but that seems to be an artifact of the rendering +/// done by the `pulldown_cmark_to_cmark` crate. +#[test] +fn default_mode_works() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"+ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + +"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert_eq!( + &result.unwrap(), + r#"
+Filename: src/main.rs + +````rust +fn main() {} +```` + +
Listing 1-2: A write-up which might include inline Markdown like code etc.
+
"# + ); +} + +#[test] +fn simple_mode_works() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"+ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + +"#, + Mode::Simple, + ); + + assert_eq!( + &result.unwrap(), + r#" +Filename: src/main.rs + +````rust +fn main() {} +```` + +Listing 1-2: A write-up which might include inline Markdown like code etc."# + ); +} + +#[test] +fn listing_with_embedded_angle_brackets() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"+ +```rust +fn get_a_box_of(t: T) -> Box { + Box::new(T) +} +``` + +"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert_eq!( + &result.unwrap(), + r#"
+ +````rust +fn get_a_box_of(t: T) -> Box { + Box::new(T) +} +```` + +
Listing 34-5: This has a Box<T> in it.
+
"# + ); +} + +#[test] +fn actual_listing() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"Now open the *main.rs* file you just created and enter the code in Listing 1-1. + ++ +```rust +fn main() { + println!("Hello, world!"); +} +``` + + + +Save the file and go back to your terminal window"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert!(result.is_ok()); + assert_eq!( + result.unwrap(), + r#"Now open the *main.rs* file you just created and enter the code in Listing 1-1. + +
+Filename: main.rs + +````rust +fn main() { + println!("Hello, world!"); +} +```` + +
Listing 1-1: A program that prints Hello, world!
+
+ +Save the file and go back to your terminal window"# + ); +} + +#[test] +fn no_filename() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"This is the opening. + ++ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + + + +This is the closing."#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert!(result.is_ok()); + assert_eq!( + result.unwrap(), + r#"This is the opening. + +
+ +````rust +fn main() {} +```` + +
Listing 1-1: This is the caption
+
+ +This is the closing."# + ); +} + +#[test] +fn without_number() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"+ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + +"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert!(result.is_ok()); + assert_eq!( + result.unwrap(), + r#"
+Filename: src/main.rs + +````rust +fn main() {} +```` + +
"# + ); +} + +#[test] +fn with_unsupported_attr_name() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + "+ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + +", + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert_eq!( + result, + Err(String::from("Unsupported attribute name: 'invalid-attr'")) + ) +} + +#[test] +fn with_unsupported_attr_name_with_arg() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"+ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + +"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert_eq!( + result, + Err(String::from("Unsupported attribute name: 'invalid-attr'")) + ) +} + +#[cfg(test)] +mod missing_value { + use super::*; + + #[test] + fn for_number() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"+ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + +"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert_eq!( + result, + Err(String::from("Missing value for attribute: 'number'")) + ) + } + + #[test] + fn for_caption() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"+ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + +"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert_eq!( + result, + Err(String::from("Missing value for attribute: 'caption'")) + ) + } + + #[test] + fn for_file_name() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"+ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + +"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert_eq!( + result, + Err(String::from("Missing value for attribute: 'file-name'")) + ) + } +} + +#[test] +fn missing_value() {} + +#[cfg(test)] +mod config; diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl-note/Cargo.toml b/packages/mdbook-trpl-note/Cargo.toml index e8dc53cc4..4fde2fd87 100644 --- a/packages/mdbook-trpl-note/Cargo.toml +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl-note/Cargo.toml @@ -14,3 +14,8 @@ serde_json = "1" [dev-dependencies] assert_cmd = "2" + +# This package is used as a path dependency in `rust-lang/rust`, not published +# to crates.io, so it cannot be part of the `rust-lang/book` workspace, because +# path dependencies do not get built as a crate within the hosting workspace. +[workspace] diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl-note/src/lib.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl-note/src/lib.rs index 4b8e2fa42..115641bac 100644 --- a/packages/mdbook-trpl-note/src/lib.rs +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl-note/src/lib.rs @@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ impl Preprocessor for TrplNote { } fn supports_renderer(&self, renderer: &str) -> bool { - renderer == "html" + renderer == "html" || renderer == "markdown" || renderer == "test" } } diff --git a/packages/tools/src/bin/lfp.rs b/packages/tools/src/bin/lfp.rs index ee7f39c3c..64bdaa99d 100644 --- a/packages/tools/src/bin/lfp.rs +++ b/packages/tools/src/bin/lfp.rs @@ -106,6 +106,8 @@ fn is_line_of_interest(line: &str) -> bool { line.split_whitespace().any(|sub_string| { sub_string.contains("file://") && !sub_string.contains("file:///projects/") + && !sub_string.contains("file:///home/.cargo") + && !sub_string.contains("file:///home/.rustup") }) } diff --git a/packages/tools/src/bin/link2print.rs b/packages/tools/src/bin/link2print.rs index 09edd84bd..6212ca012 100644 --- a/packages/tools/src/bin/link2print.rs +++ b/packages/tools/src/bin/link2print.rs @@ -46,23 +46,11 @@ fn parse_references(buffer: String) -> (String, HashMap) { fn parse_links((buffer, ref_map): (String, HashMap)) -> String { // FIXME: check which punctuation is allowed by spec. let re = Regex::new(r###"(?:(?P
(?:```(?:[^`]|`[^`])*`?\n```\n)|(?:[^\[]`[^`\n]+[\n]?[^`\n]*`))|(?:\[(?P[^]]+)\](?:(?:\([[:blank:]]*(?P[^")]*[^ ])(?:[[:blank:]]*"[^"]*")?\))|(?:\[(?P[^]]*)\]))?))"###).expect("could not create regex");
-    let error_code =
-        Regex::new(r###"^E\d{4}$"###).expect("could not create regex");
     let output = re.replace_all(&buffer, |caps: &Captures<'_>| {
         match caps.name("pre") {
             Some(pre_section) => pre_section.as_str().to_string(),
             None => {
                 let name = caps.name("name").expect("could not get name").as_str();
-                // Really we should ignore text inside code blocks,
-                // this is a hack to not try to treat `#[derive()]`,
-                // `[profile]`, `[test]`, or `[E\d\d\d\d]` like a link.
-                if name.starts_with("derive(") ||
-                   name.starts_with("profile") ||
-                   name.starts_with("test") ||
-                   name.starts_with("no_mangle") ||
-                   error_code.is_match(name) {
-                    return name.to_string()
-                }
 
                 let val = match caps.name("val") {
                     // `[name](link)`
@@ -77,8 +65,10 @@ fn parse_links((buffer, ref_map): (String, HashMap)) -> String {
                                     _ => ref_map.get(&key.as_str().to_uppercase()).unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("could not find url for the link text `{}`", key.as_str())).to_string(),
                                 }
                             }
-                            // `[name]` as reference
-                            None => ref_map.get(&name.to_uppercase()).unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("could not find url for the link text `{name}`")).to_string(),
+                            // `[name]` is within code and should not be treated as a link
+                            None => {
+                                return format!("[{name}]");
+                            }
                         }
                     }
                 };
@@ -232,11 +222,11 @@ more text"
     }
 
     #[test]
-    fn parses_link_without_reference_as_reference() {
+    fn does_not_parse_link_without_reference_as_reference() {
         let source = r"[link] is alone
 [link]: The contents"
             .to_string();
-        let target = r"link at *The contents* is alone".to_string();
+        let target = r"[link] is alone".to_string();
         assert_eq!(parse(source), target);
     }
 
@@ -290,7 +280,7 @@ version = "0.1.0"
 
 [dependencies]
 ```
-Another [link]
+Another [link][]
 more text
 [link]: http://gohere
 "###
diff --git a/packages/tools/src/bin/release_listings.rs b/packages/tools/src/bin/release_listings.rs
index c9a2f4597..468c4637d 100644
--- a/packages/tools/src/bin/release_listings.rs
+++ b/packages/tools/src/bin/release_listings.rs
@@ -28,26 +28,59 @@ fn main() -> Result<(), Box> {
         let chapter = chapter?;
         let chapter_path = chapter.path();
 
+        if !chapter_path.is_dir() {
+            eprintln!(
+                "'{}' is not a directory, skipping",
+                chapter_path.display()
+            );
+            continue;
+        }
+
         let chapter_name = chapter_path
             .file_name()
             .expect("Chapter should've had a name");
 
         // Create a corresponding chapter dir in `tmp/listings`
         let output_chapter_path = out_dir.join(chapter_name);
-        fs::create_dir(&output_chapter_path)?;
+        fs::create_dir(&output_chapter_path).map_err(|e| {
+            format!(
+                "could not create dir at '{}': {e}",
+                output_chapter_path.display()
+            )
+        })?;
 
         // For each listing in the chapter directory,
-        for listing in fs::read_dir(chapter_path)? {
-            let listing = listing?;
+        for listing in fs::read_dir(&chapter_path).map_err(|e| {
+            format!("Could not read '{}': {e}", chapter_path.display())
+        })? {
+            let listing = listing.map_err(|e| {
+                format!(
+                    "bad dir entry listing in {}: {e}",
+                    chapter_path.display()
+                )
+            })?;
             let listing_path = listing.path();
 
+            if !listing_path.is_dir() {
+                eprintln!(
+                    "'{}' is not a directory, skipping",
+                    listing_path.display(),
+                );
+                continue;
+            }
+
             let listing_name = listing_path
                 .file_name()
                 .expect("Listing should've had a name");
 
             // Create a corresponding listing dir in the tmp chapter dir
             let output_listing_dir = output_chapter_path.join(listing_name);
-            fs::create_dir(&output_listing_dir)?;
+            fs::create_dir(&output_listing_dir).map_err(|e| {
+                format!(
+                    "could not create dir '{}': {e}",
+                    output_listing_dir.display()
+                )
+            })?;
 
             // Copy all the cleaned files in the listing to the tmp directory
             copy_cleaned_listing_files(listing_path, output_listing_dir)?;
@@ -79,8 +112,12 @@ fn copy_cleaned_listing_files(
     from: PathBuf,
     to: PathBuf,
 ) -> Result<(), Box> {
-    for item in fs::read_dir(from)? {
-        let item = item?;
+    for item in fs::read_dir(&from).map_err(|e| {
+        format!("Could not read_dir on '{}': {e}", from.display())
+    })? {
+        let item = item.map_err(|e| {
+            format!("invalid dir entry in {}: {e}", from.display())
+        })?;
         let item_path = item.path();
 
         let item_name =
@@ -90,7 +127,12 @@ fn copy_cleaned_listing_files(
         if item_path.is_dir() {
             // Don't copy `target` directories
             if item_name != "target" {
-                fs::create_dir(&output_item)?;
+                fs::create_dir(&output_item).map_err(|e| {
+                    format!(
+                        "Could not create output directory '{}': {e}",
+                        output_item.display()
+                    )
+                })?;
                 copy_cleaned_listing_files(item_path, output_item)?;
             }
         } else {
@@ -105,7 +147,13 @@ fn copy_cleaned_listing_files(
                     )?;
                 } else {
                     // Copy any non-Rust files without modification
-                    fs::copy(item_path, output_item)?;
+                    fs::copy(&item_path, &output_item).map_err(|e| {
+                        format!(
+                            "Could not copy from '{}' to '{}': {e}",
+                            item_path.display(),
+                            output_item.display()
+                        )
+                    })?;
                 }
             }
         }
diff --git a/packages/tools/src/bin/remove_markup.rs b/packages/tools/src/bin/remove_markup.rs
index cda6ebaa3..6ec0fdfb9 100644
--- a/packages/tools/src/bin/remove_markup.rs
+++ b/packages/tools/src/bin/remove_markup.rs
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ fn remove_markup(input: String) -> String {
     let caption_start_regex =
         Regex::new(r#"\A(.*)\z"#).unwrap();
     let caption_end_regex = Regex::new(r#"(.*)\z"#).unwrap();
-    let regexen = vec![filename_regex, caption_start_regex, caption_end_regex];
+    let regexen = [filename_regex, caption_start_regex, caption_end_regex];
 
     let lines: Vec<_> = input
         .lines()
diff --git a/packages/trpl/CHANGELOG.md b/packages/trpl/CHANGELOG.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..e579745ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/trpl/CHANGELOG.md
@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+# CHANGELOG
+
+## 0.1.0
+
+Initial release! Adds support code for the first draft of the new async chapter of the book.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/trpl/CONTRIBUTING.md b/packages/trpl/CONTRIBUTING.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..bd14bf21d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/trpl/CONTRIBUTING.md
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+# Contributing
+
+## 🚧 Under construction! 🚧
+
+Thanks for your interesting in helping us with this! At the moment, we are not
+ready for contributions, though.
+
+Once we stabilize the contents of the book, including the APIs we are
+re-exporting here and the little bits of functionality implemented in that
+crate, we will gladly take all the help we can get for maintaining this. We will
+update this document once we are ready for contributions.
diff --git a/packages/trpl/Cargo.lock b/packages/trpl/Cargo.lock
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..64b6198c2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/trpl/Cargo.lock
@@ -0,0 +1,1627 @@
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+# It is not intended for manual editing.
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+ "gimli",
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diff --git a/packages/trpl/Cargo.toml b/packages/trpl/Cargo.toml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..a76c8261b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/trpl/Cargo.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+[package]
+name = "trpl"
+version = "0.2.0"
+edition = "2021"
+license = "MIT OR Apache-2.0"
+description = "A support crate for The Rust Programming Language book"
+readme = "README.md"
+repository = "https://github.com/rust-lang/book"
+authors = ["Chris Krycho "]
+
+# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html
+
+[dependencies]
+futures = "0.3"
+reqwest = { version = "0.12", default-features = false, features = [
+    "rustls-tls",
+] }
+scraper = "0.20"
+tokio = { version = "1", default-features = false, features = [
+    "fs",
+    "rt-multi-thread",
+    "sync",
+    "time",
+] }
+tokio-stream = "0.1"
+
+# This package is built as a standalone package to publish to crates.io, and is
+# also built as a path dependency for distribution with Rust, so it must not be
+# built as part of the `rust-lang/book` or `rust-lang/rust` workspaces.
+[workspace]
diff --git a/packages/trpl/LICENSE-APACHE b/packages/trpl/LICENSE-APACHE
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..38634daab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/trpl/LICENSE-APACHE
@@ -0,0 +1,201 @@
+                              Apache License
+                        Version 2.0, January 2004
+                     http://www.apache.org/licenses/
+
+TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION
+
+1. Definitions.
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+   "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
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+5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
+   any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
+   by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
+   this License, without any additional terms or conditions.
+   Notwithstanding the above, nothing herein shall supersede or modify
+   the terms of any separate license agreement you may have executed
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+6. Trademarks. This License does not grant permission to use the trade
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+7. Disclaimer of Warranty. Unless required by applicable law or
+   agreed to in writing, Licensor provides the Work (and each
+   Contributor provides its Contributions) on an "AS IS" BASIS,
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+8. Limitation of Liability. In no event and under no legal theory,
+   whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
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+   on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
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+   of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.
+
+END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
+
+APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work.
+
+   To apply the Apache License to your work, attach the following
+   boilerplate notice, with the fields enclosed by brackets "[]"
+   replaced with your own identifying information. (Don't include
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+   file or class name and description of purpose be included on the
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+
+Copyright 2010 The Rust Project Developers
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+	http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
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diff --git a/packages/trpl/LICENSE-MIT b/packages/trpl/LICENSE-MIT
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..25597d583
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/trpl/LICENSE-MIT
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+Copyright (c) 2010 The Rust Project Developers
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any
+person obtaining a copy of this software and associated
+documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the
+Software without restriction, including without
+limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge,
+publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of
+the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software
+is furnished to do so, subject to the following
+conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice
+shall be included in all copies or substantial portions
+of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF
+ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
+TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT
+SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR
+IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
diff --git a/packages/trpl/README.md b/packages/trpl/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..7d2250488
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/trpl/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+# The Rust Programming Language Book Crate
+
+![Build Status](https://github.com/chriskrycho/trpl-crate/workflows/CI/badge.svg)
+
+This repository is the home of the `trpl` crate used in _The Rust Programming
+Language_ book materials.
+
+This crate mostly just re-exports items from *other* crates. It exists for two
+main reasons:
+
+1. So that as you read along in _The Rust Programming Language_, you can add
+   just one dependency, rather than however many we end up with, and likewise
+   use only one set of imports.
+
+2. So that we can more easily guarantee it keeps building and working. Since we
+   control the contents of this crate and when it changes, readers will never be
+   broken by upstream changes, e.g. if Tokio does a breaking 2.0 release at some
+   point.
+
+## Requirements
+
+This crate currently requires at least Rust 1.79.
diff --git a/packages/trpl/src/lib.rs b/packages/trpl/src/lib.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..999cb6e27
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/trpl/src/lib.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,150 @@
+//! A support crate for [_The Rust Programming Language_][trpl].
+//!
+//! [trpl]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/book
+//!
+//! This crate mostly just re-exports items from *other* crates. It exists for
+//! two main reasons:
+//!
+//! 1. So that as you read along in _The Rust Programming Language_, you can
+//!    add just one dependency, rather than however many we end up with, and
+//!    likewise use only one set of imports.
+//!
+//! 2. So that we can more easily guarantee it keeps building and working. Since
+//!    we control the contents of this crate and when it changes, readers will
+//!    never be broken by upstream changes, e.g. if Tokio does a breaking 2.0
+//!    release at some point.
+
+// For direct use within the `trpl` crate, *not* re-exported.
+use std::{future::Future, pin::pin};
+
+use futures::future;
+
+// Re-exports, to be used like `trpl::join`.
+pub use futures::{
+    future::{join, join3, join_all, Either},
+    join,
+};
+pub use tokio::{
+    fs::read_to_string,
+    runtime::Runtime,
+    // We use the `unbounded` variants because they most closely match the APIs
+    // from `std::sync::mpsc::channel`. Tokio's API choices are interesting:
+    //
+    // | `tokio::sync::mpsc` | `std::sync::mpsc` |
+    // | ------------------- | ----------------- |
+    // | `channel`           | `sync_channel`    |
+    // | `unbounded_channel` | `channel`         |
+    //
+    // The book collapses these differences for pedagogical simplicity, so that
+    // readers are not asking why `unbounded` is now important and can focus on
+    // the more important differences between sync and async APIs.
+    sync::mpsc::{
+        unbounded_channel as channel, UnboundedReceiver as Receiver,
+        UnboundedSender as Sender,
+    },
+    task::{spawn as spawn_task, yield_now, JoinHandle},
+    time::{interval, sleep},
+};
+
+pub use tokio_stream::{
+    iter as stream_from_iter,
+    wrappers::{IntervalStream, UnboundedReceiverStream as ReceiverStream},
+    Stream, StreamExt,
+};
+
+/// Run a single future to completion on a bespoke Tokio `Runtime`.
+///
+/// Every time you call this, a new instance of `tokio::runtime::Runtime` will
+/// be created (see the implementation for details: it is trivial). This is:
+///
+/// - Reasonable for teaching purposes, in that you do not generally need to set
+///   up more than one runtime anyway, and especially do not in basic code like
+///   we are showing!
+///
+/// - Not *that* far off from what Tokio itself does under the hood in its own
+///   `tokio::main` macro for supporting `async fn main`.
+pub fn run(future: F) -> F::Output {
+    let rt = Runtime::new().unwrap();
+    rt.block_on(future)
+}
+
+/// Run two futures, taking whichever finishes first and canceling the other.
+///
+/// Notice that this is built on [`futures::future::select`], which has the
+/// same overall semantics but does *not* drop the slower future. The idea there
+/// is that you can work with the first result and then later *also* continue
+/// waiting for the second future.
+///
+/// We use the `race` semantics, where the slower future is simply dropped, for
+/// the sake of simplicity in the examples: no need to deal with the tuple and
+/// intentionally ignore the second future this way!
+///
+/// Note that this only works as “simply” as it does because:
+///
+/// - It takes ownership of the futures.
+/// - It internally *pins* the futures.
+/// - It throws away (rather than returning) the unused future (which is why it
+///   can get away with pinning them).
+pub async fn race(f1: F1, f2: F2) -> Either
+where
+    F1: Future,
+    F2: Future,
+{
+    let f1 = pin!(f1);
+    let f2 = pin!(f2);
+    match future::select(f1, f2).await {
+        Either::Left((a, _f2)) => Either::Left(a),
+        Either::Right((b, _f1)) => Either::Right(b),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Fetch data from a URL. For more convenient use in _The Rust Programming
+/// Language_, panics instead of returning a [`Result`] if the request fails.
+pub async fn get(url: &str) -> Response {
+    Response(reqwest::get(url).await.unwrap())
+}
+
+/// A thin wrapper around [`reqwest::Response`] to make the demos in _The Rust
+/// Programming Language_ substantially nicer to use.
+pub struct Response(reqwest::Response);
+
+impl Response {
+    /// Get the full response text.
+    ///
+    /// If the response cannot be deserialized, this panics instead of returning
+    /// a [`Result`] (for convenience in the demo).
+    pub async fn text(self) -> String {
+        self.0.text().await.unwrap()
+    }
+}
+
+/// A thin wrapper around [`scraper::Html`] to make the demos in _The Rust
+/// Programming Language_ substantially nicer to use.
+pub struct Html {
+    inner: scraper::Html,
+}
+
+impl Html {
+    /// Parse an HTML document from a string.
+    ///
+    /// This is just a thin wrapper around `scraper::Html::parse_document` to
+    /// keep the exported API surface simpler.
+    pub fn parse(source: &str) -> Html {
+        Html {
+            inner: scraper::Html::parse_document(source),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the first item in the document matching a string selector. Returns
+    /// Some()
+    ///
+    /// If the selector is not a valid CSS selector, panics rather than
+    /// returning a [`Result`] for convenience.
+    pub fn select_first<'a>(
+        &'a self,
+        selector: &'a str,
+    ) -> Option> {
+        let selector = scraper::Selector::parse(selector).unwrap();
+        self.inner.select(&selector).nth(0)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/packages/trpl/tests/integration/main.rs b/packages/trpl/tests/integration/main.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..afc5f8186
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/trpl/tests/integration/main.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,242 @@
+//! Integration tests for the crate.
+//!
+//! These all live in a *single* integration test crate, `tests/integration`,
+//! because each integration test is a dedicated binary crate which has to be
+//! compiled separately. While that is not really a problem for a crate this
+//! small, we have chosen to follow this “best practice” here as a good example.
+//!
+//! For more details on why you might prefer this pattern see [this post][post].
+//!
+//! [post]: https://matklad.github.io/2021/02/27/delete-cargo-integration-tests.html
+
+use std::{pin::Pin, time::Duration};
+
+use futures::Future;
+use trpl::{Either, Receiver, Sender};
+
+/// This test is foundational for all the others, as they depend on `run`.
+///
+/// If we mess this up, *all* the tests below will fail -- so by the same token,
+/// if all the tests below are failing, this one probably is too; fix it and the
+/// others will likely start working again.
+#[test]
+fn re_exported_run_works() {
+    let val = trpl::run(async { "Hello" });
+    assert_eq!(val, "Hello");
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn re_exported_spawn_works() {
+    let result = trpl::run(async {
+        let handle_a = trpl::spawn_task(async { "Hello" });
+        let handle_b = trpl::spawn_task(async { "Goodbye" });
+        vec![handle_a.await.unwrap(), handle_b.await.unwrap()]
+    });
+
+    assert_eq!(result, vec!["Hello", "Goodbye"]);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn re_exported_sleep_works() {
+    let val = trpl::run(async {
+        trpl::sleep(Duration::from_micros(1)).await;
+        "Done!"
+    });
+    assert_eq!(val, "Done!");
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn re_exported_channel_apis_work() {
+    trpl::run(async {
+        // Explicitly naming the type to confirm the re-exports are aligned.
+        let (tx, mut rx): (Sender<&str>, Receiver<&str>) = trpl::channel();
+
+        tx.send("Hello").unwrap();
+        trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await;
+        tx.send("Goodbye").unwrap();
+        drop(tx);
+
+        assert_eq!(rx.recv().await, Some("Hello"));
+        assert_eq!(rx.recv().await, Some("Goodbye"));
+        assert_eq!(rx.recv().await, None);
+    });
+}
+
+mod re_exported_join_apis_work {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn join_fn() {
+        let result = trpl::run(async {
+            let a = async { 1 };
+            let b = async { 2 };
+            trpl::join(a, b).await
+        });
+
+        assert_eq!(result, (1, 2));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn join3_fn() {
+        let result = trpl::run(async {
+            let a = async { 1 };
+            let b = async { 2 };
+            let c = async { 3 };
+
+            trpl::join3(a, b, c).await
+        });
+
+        assert_eq!(result, (1, 2, 3));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn join_all_fn() {
+        let result = trpl::run(async {
+            let a = async { format!("{}", 1) };
+
+            let b = async { "Hello".to_string() };
+
+            let outer = String::from("World");
+            let c = async move { outer.to_string() };
+
+            let futures: Vec>>> =
+                vec![Box::pin(a), Box::pin(b), Box::pin(c)];
+
+            trpl::join_all(futures).await
+        });
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            result,
+            vec![
+                String::from("1"),
+                String::from("Hello"),
+                String::from("World")
+            ]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn join_macro() {
+        let result = trpl::run(async {
+            let a = async { 1 };
+            let b = async { "Hello" };
+
+            let outer = vec![String::from("World")];
+            let c = async move { outer };
+
+            trpl::join!(a, b, c)
+        });
+
+        assert_eq!(result, (1, "Hello", vec![String::from("World")]));
+    }
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn race() {
+    #[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
+    struct Slow;
+
+    #[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
+    struct Fast;
+
+    let val = trpl::run(async {
+        let slow = async {
+            trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1_000)).await;
+            Slow
+        };
+
+        let fast = async {
+            trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await;
+            Fast
+        };
+
+        trpl::race(slow, fast).await
+    });
+
+    assert!(matches!(val, Either::Right(Fast)));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn yield_now() {
+    let result = trpl::run(async {
+        trpl::yield_now().await;
+        "done"
+    });
+
+    assert_eq!(result, "done");
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn read_to_string() {
+    let result = trpl::run(async {
+        trpl::read_to_string("tests/integration/to-read.txt")
+            .await
+            .unwrap()
+    });
+
+    assert_eq!(result, String::from("This is some text!\n"));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn stream_iter() {
+    use trpl::StreamExt;
+
+    let result = trpl::run(async {
+        let ns = vec![1, 2, 3];
+        let mut stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(ns);
+        let mut result = vec![];
+        while let Some(n) = stream.next().await {
+            result.push(format!("{n}"));
+        }
+        result
+    });
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        result,
+        vec![String::from("1"), String::from("2"), String::from("3")]
+    )
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn receiver_stream() {
+    use trpl::ReceiverStream;
+    use trpl::StreamExt;
+
+    let result: Vec = trpl::run(async {
+        println!("startup");
+        let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel();
+        let rx_stream = ReceiverStream::new(rx);
+        println!("sending 123");
+        tx.send(123).unwrap();
+        drop(tx); // So the receiver channel closes!
+
+        rx_stream.collect().await
+    });
+
+    assert_eq!(result, vec![123]);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn re_exported_interval_stream_works() {
+    use trpl::{IntervalStream, StreamExt};
+
+    trpl::run(async {
+        let mut interval_stream =
+            IntervalStream::new(trpl::interval(Duration::from_millis(1)))
+                .take(1);
+
+        assert!(interval_stream.next().await.is_some());
+        assert!(interval_stream.next().await.is_none());
+    });
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn re_exported_html() {
+    use trpl::Html;
+
+    let doc = Html::parse(
+        "
Hello!
",
+    );
+    let p = doc.select_first("p").map(|el| el.inner_html());
+    assert_eq!(p, Some(String::from("Hello!")));
+}
diff --git a/packages/trpl/tests/integration/to-read.txt b/packages/trpl/tests/integration/to-read.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..2af04f5bd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/trpl/tests/integration/to-read.txt
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+This is some text!
diff --git a/redirects/associated-types.md b/redirects/associated-types.md
index b222f3298..af052c160 100644
--- a/redirects/associated-types.md
+++ b/redirects/associated-types.md
@@ -14,4 +14,4 @@ pub trait Iterator {
 ---
 
 You can find the latest version of this information
-[here](ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#specifying-placeholder-types-in-trait-definitions-with-associated-types).
\ No newline at end of file
+[here](ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#specifying-placeholder-types-in-trait-definitions-with-associated-types).
diff --git a/redirects/const-and-static.md b/redirects/const-and-static.md
index 6212408f9..e9346199a 100644
--- a/redirects/const-and-static.md
+++ b/redirects/const-and-static.md
@@ -16,4 +16,6 @@ static HELLO_WORLD: &str = "Hello, world!";
 You can find the latest version about constants
 [here](ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.html#constantes),
 and about statics
-[here](ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#accessing-or-modifying-a-mutable-static-variable).
+[here](ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html#accessing-or-modifying-a-mutable-static-variable).
+
+
diff --git a/redirects/ffi.md b/redirects/ffi.md
index 20ed3963e..63308ab1d 100644
--- a/redirects/ffi.md
+++ b/redirects/ffi.md
@@ -20,4 +20,4 @@ fn main() {
 ---
 
 You can find the latest version of this information
-[here](ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#using-extern-functions-to-call-external-code)
\ No newline at end of file
+[here](ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html#using-extern-functions-to-call-external-code)
diff --git a/redirects/macros.md b/redirects/macros.md
index b42c56a15..13638ed6f 100644
--- a/redirects/macros.md
+++ b/redirects/macros.md
@@ -25,6 +25,6 @@ Here are the relevant sections in the new and old books:
 
 
 [1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/first-edition/macros.html
-[2]: ch19-06-macros.html
+[2]: ch20-06-macros.html
 [3]: https://rustbyexample.com/macros.html
 [4]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/macros-by-example.html
diff --git a/redirects/match.md b/redirects/match.md
index fd28ba8de..5bcbc8949 100644
--- a/redirects/match.md
+++ b/redirects/match.md
@@ -34,5 +34,5 @@ Here are the relevant sections in the new and old books:
 
 [1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/first-edition/match.html
 [2]: ch06-02-match.html
-[3]: ch18-00-patterns.html
+[3]: ch19-00-patterns.html
 
diff --git a/redirects/operators-and-overloading.md b/redirects/operators-and-overloading.md
index ff9a33048..3a61fbabc 100644
--- a/redirects/operators-and-overloading.md
+++ b/redirects/operators-and-overloading.md
@@ -33,4 +33,4 @@ fn main() {
 ---
 
 You can find the latest version of this information
-[here](ch19-03-advanced-traits.html).
+[here](ch20-03-advanced-traits.html).
diff --git a/redirects/procedural-macros.md b/redirects/procedural-macros.md
index f5dd7b399..9519f60c7 100644
--- a/redirects/procedural-macros.md
+++ b/redirects/procedural-macros.md
@@ -16,6 +16,6 @@ You can check out other resources that describe macros.
 
 
 [1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/first-edition/procedural-macros.html
-[2]: ch19-06-macros.html
+[2]: ch20-06-macros.html
 [3]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/proc_macro/index.html
 [4]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/procedural-macros.html
diff --git a/redirects/raw-pointers.md b/redirects/raw-pointers.md
index 773f3abc4..4076907b5 100644
--- a/redirects/raw-pointers.md
+++ b/redirects/raw-pointers.md
@@ -14,4 +14,4 @@ let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32;
 ---
 
 You can find the latest version of this information
-[here](ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#dereferencing-a-raw-pointer)
\ No newline at end of file
+[here](ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html#dereferencing-a-raw-pointer)
diff --git a/redirects/trait-objects.md b/redirects/trait-objects.md
index 3200e26a1..44ca32823 100644
--- a/redirects/trait-objects.md
+++ b/redirects/trait-objects.md
@@ -65,4 +65,4 @@ Here are the relevant sections in the new and old books:
 
 
 [1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/first-edition/trait-objects.html
-[2]: ch17-02-trait-objects.html
+[2]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html
diff --git a/redirects/traits.md b/redirects/traits.md
index dcb577e97..b36ede664 100644
--- a/redirects/traits.md
+++ b/redirects/traits.md
@@ -21,4 +21,4 @@ Here are the relevant sections in the new and old books:
 
 [1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/first-edition/traits.html
 [2]: ch10-02-traits.html
-[3]: ch19-03-advanced-traits.html
+[3]: ch20-03-advanced-traits.html
diff --git a/redirects/type-aliases.md b/redirects/type-aliases.md
index 85cd4c9ec..84f94e41e 100644
--- a/redirects/type-aliases.md
+++ b/redirects/type-aliases.md
@@ -11,4 +11,4 @@ type Kilometers = i32;
 ---
 
 You can find the latest version of this information
-[here](ch19-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases).
\ No newline at end of file
+[here](ch20-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases).
diff --git a/redirects/ufcs.md b/redirects/ufcs.md
index 2959c06bd..684c02ec7 100644
--- a/redirects/ufcs.md
+++ b/redirects/ufcs.md
@@ -45,4 +45,4 @@ fn main() {
 ---
 
 You can find the latest version of this information
-[here](ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#fully-qualified-syntax-for-disambiguation-calling-methods-with-the-same-name).
\ No newline at end of file
+[here](ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#fully-qualified-syntax-for-disambiguation-calling-methods-with-the-same-name).
diff --git a/redirects/unsafe.md b/redirects/unsafe.md
index 5de71c949..2efe316b5 100644
--- a/redirects/unsafe.md
+++ b/redirects/unsafe.md
@@ -14,5 +14,5 @@ Here are the relevant sections in the new and old books:
 
 
 [1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/first-edition/unsafe.html
-[2]: ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html
+[2]: ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html
 [3]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/nomicon/index.html
diff --git a/redirects/unsized-types.md b/redirects/unsized-types.md
index 0f5b1b380..947846f07 100644
--- a/redirects/unsized-types.md
+++ b/redirects/unsized-types.md
@@ -15,4 +15,5 @@ fn generic(t: &T) {
 ---
 
 You can find the latest version of this information
-[here](ch19-04-advanced-types.html#tipos-de-tamano-dinamico-y-el-trait-sized).
+[here](ch20-04-advanced-types.html#tipos-de-tamano-dinamico-y-el-trait-sized).
+
diff --git a/rust-toolchain b/rust-toolchain
index 8e95c75da..a92432a8a 100644
--- a/rust-toolchain
+++ b/rust-toolchain
@@ -1 +1 @@
-1.78
+1.82
diff --git a/second-edition/src/appendix-04-macros.md b/second-edition/src/appendix-04-macros.md
index 2798b5d50..dfcdcec07 100644
--- a/second-edition/src/appendix-04-macros.md
+++ b/second-edition/src/appendix-04-macros.md
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation.
 
 If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current
-version of the book](../ch19-06-macros.html) instead.
+version of the book](../ch20-06-macros.html) instead.
 
 If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with
 Rust
-1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/appendix-04-macros.html).
\ No newline at end of file
+1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/appendix-04-macros.html).
diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md b/second-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md
index 752130915..e3633405f 100644
--- a/second-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md
+++ b/second-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation.
 
 If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current
-version of the book](../ch17-00-oop.html) instead.
+version of the book](../ch18-00-oop.html) instead.
 
 If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with
 Rust
-1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-00-oop.html).
\ No newline at end of file
+1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-00-oop.html).
diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md b/second-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md
index 82c1ed8f9..a705d1941 100644
--- a/second-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md
+++ b/second-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation.
 
 If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current
-version of the book](../ch17-01-what-is-oo.html) instead.
+version of the book](../ch18-01-what-is-oo.html) instead.
 
 If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with
 Rust
-1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-01-what-is-oo.html).
\ No newline at end of file
+1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-01-what-is-oo.html).
diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md b/second-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md
index 35f0c1883..16dad6368 100644
--- a/second-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md
+++ b/second-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation.
 
 If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current
-version of the book](../ch17-02-trait-objects.html) instead.
+version of the book](../ch18-02-trait-objects.html) instead.
 
 If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with
 Rust
-1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-02-trait-objects.html).
\ No newline at end of file
+1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-02-trait-objects.html).
diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md b/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md
index 46bec2692..b29dc2393 100644
--- a/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md
+++ b/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation.
 
 If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current
-version of the book](../ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead.
+version of the book](../ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead.
 
 If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with
 Rust
-1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html).
\ No newline at end of file
+1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html).
diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md b/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md
index 6bd221fa3..e315b3527 100644
--- a/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md
+++ b/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation.
 
 If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current
-version of the book](../ch18-00-patterns.html) instead.
+version of the book](../ch19-00-patterns.html) instead.
 
 If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with
 Rust
-1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-00-patterns.html).
\ No newline at end of file
+1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-00-patterns.html).
diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md b/second-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md
index 0374a9a88..4a76aded0 100644
--- a/second-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md
+++ b/second-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation.
 
 If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current
-version of the book](../ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html) instead.
+version of the book](../ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html) instead.
 
 If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with
 Rust
-1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html).
\ No newline at end of file
+1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html).
diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md b/second-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md
index 2ef5206af..768df16b2 100644
--- a/second-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md
+++ b/second-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation.
 
 If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current
-version of the book](../ch18-02-refutability.html) instead.
+version of the book](../ch19-02-refutability.html) instead.
 
 If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with
 Rust
-1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-02-refutability.html).
\ No newline at end of file
+1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-02-refutability.html).
diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md b/second-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md
index 31c5f7920..08676091e 100644
--- a/second-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md
+++ b/second-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation.
 
 If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current
-version of the book](../ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html) instead.
+version of the book](../ch19-03-pattern-syntax.html) instead.
 
 If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with
 Rust
-1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html).
\ No newline at end of file
+1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html).
diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md b/second-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md
index f6df05f0a..3633c0548 100644
--- a/second-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md
+++ b/second-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation.
 
 If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current
-version of the book](../ch19-00-advanced-features.html) instead.
+version of the book](../ch20-00-advanced-features.html) instead.
 
 If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with
 Rust
-1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-00-advanced-features.html).
\ No newline at end of file
+1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-00-advanced-features.html).
diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md b/second-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md
index 8a9a29c09..0e740ce03 100644
--- a/second-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md
+++ b/second-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation.
 
 If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current
-version of the book](../ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html) instead.
+version of the book](../ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html) instead.
 
 If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with
 Rust
-1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html).
\ No newline at end of file
+1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html).
diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md b/second-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md
index cc8433fb3..56b9c7e66 100644
--- a/second-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md
+++ b/second-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation.
 
 If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current
-version of the book](../ch19-03-advanced-traits.html) instead.
+version of the book](../ch20-03-advanced-traits.html) instead.
 
 If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with
 Rust
-1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-03-advanced-traits.html).
\ No newline at end of file
+1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-03-advanced-traits.html).
diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md b/second-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md
index 508145729..c217a12b5 100644
--- a/second-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md
+++ b/second-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation.
 
 If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current
-version of the book](../ch19-04-advanced-types.html) instead.
+version of the book](../ch20-04-advanced-types.html) instead.
 
 If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with
 Rust
-1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-04-advanced-types.html).
\ No newline at end of file
+1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-04-advanced-types.html).
diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md b/second-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md
index 18d369c60..6c296b9ef 100644
--- a/second-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md
+++ b/second-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation.
 
 If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current
-version of the book](../ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html) instead.
+version of the book](../ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html) instead.
 
 If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with
 Rust
-1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html).
\ No newline at end of file
+1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html).
diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md b/second-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md
index 059d6824c..0c99ac623 100644
--- a/second-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md
+++ b/second-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation.
 
 If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current
-version of the book](../ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html) instead.
+version of the book](../ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.html) instead.
 
 If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with
 Rust
-1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html).
\ No newline at end of file
+1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html).
diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md b/second-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md
index 5ff97a2ee..a06b0cbc1 100644
--- a/second-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md
+++ b/second-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation.
 
 If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current
-version of the book](../ch20-01-single-threaded.html) instead.
+version of the book](../ch21-01-single-threaded.html) instead.
 
 If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with
 Rust
-1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-01-single-threaded.html).
\ No newline at end of file
+1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-01-single-threaded.html).
diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md b/second-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md
index 0695d2451..8826bd9f1 100644
--- a/second-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md
+++ b/second-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation.
 
 If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current
-version of the book](../ch20-02-multithreaded.html) instead.
+version of the book](../ch21-02-multithreaded.html) instead.
 
 If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with
 Rust
-1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-02-multithreaded.html).
\ No newline at end of file
+1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-02-multithreaded.html).
diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md b/second-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md
index eb7ed5987..457b294f9 100644
--- a/second-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md
+++ b/second-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation.
 
 If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current
-version of the book](../ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html) instead.
+version of the book](../ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html) instead.
 
 If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with
 Rust
-1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html).
\ No newline at end of file
+1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html).
diff --git a/src/SUMMARY.md b/src/SUMMARY.md
index c01c9c1a5..4dfef44d0 100644
--- a/src/SUMMARY.md
+++ b/src/SUMMARY.md
@@ -114,32 +114,40 @@
   - [Concurrencia con Estado Compartido](ch16-03-shared-state.md)
   - [Concurrencia Extensible con los Traits `Sync` y `Send`](ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md)
 
-- [Rust como un Lenguaje de Programación Orientado a Objetos](ch17-00-oop.md)
-  - [Características de Lenguajes Orientados a Objetos](ch17-01-what-is-oo.md)
-  - [Usando Trait Objects que Permiten Valores de Diferentes Tipos](ch17-02-trait-objects.md)
-  - [Implementando un Patrón de Diseño Orientado a Objetos](ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md)
+- [Async y Await](ch17-00-async-await.md)
+    - [Futures y la sintaxis Async](ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md)
+    - [Concurrencia Con Async](ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md)
+    - [Trabajar con cualquier número de futuros](ch17-03-more-futures.md)
+    - [Streams](ch17-04-streams.md)
+    - [Profundizando en los Traits para Async](ch17-05-traits-for-async.md)
+    - [Futuros, tareas e hilos](ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md)
+
+- [Rust como un Lenguaje de Programación Orientado a Objetos](ch18-00-oop.md)
+  - [Características de Lenguajes Orientados a Objetos](ch18-01-what-is-oo.md)
+  - [Usando Trait Objects que Permiten Valores de Diferentes Tipos](ch18-02-trait-objects.md)
+  - [Implementando un Patrón de Diseño Orientado a Objetos](ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md)
 
 ## Temas Avanzados
 
-- [Patterns and Matching](ch18-00-patterns.md)
+- [Patterns and Matching](ch19-00-patterns.md)
 
-  - [Todos los lugares donde se pueden usar Patterns](ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md)
-  - [Refutabilidad: Si un Pattern Puede Fallar al Hacer Match](ch18-02-refutability.md)
-  - [Sintaxis de los Patterns](ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md)
+  - [Todos los lugares donde se pueden usar Patterns](ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md)
+  - [Refutabilidad: Si un Pattern Puede Fallar al Hacer Match](ch19-02-refutability.md)
+  - [Sintaxis de los Patterns](ch19-03-pattern-syntax.md)
 
-- [Características Avanzadas](ch19-00-advanced-features.md)
+- [Características Avanzadas](ch20-00-advanced-features.md)
 
-  - [Rust Inseguro](ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md)
-  - [Advanced Traits](ch19-03-advanced-traits.md)
-  - [Advanced Types](ch19-04-advanced-types.md)
-  - [Advanced Functions and Closures](ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md)
-  - [Macros](ch19-06-macros.md)
+  - [Rust Inseguro](ch20-01-unsafe-rust.md)
+  - [Advanced Traits](ch20-03-advanced-traits.md)
+  - [Advanced Types](ch20-04-advanced-types.md)
+  - [Advanced Functions and Closures](ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md)
+  - [Macros](ch20-06-macros.md)
 
-- [Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server](ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md)
+- [Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server](ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.md)
 
-  - [Building a Single-Threaded Web Server](ch20-01-single-threaded.md)
-  - [Turning Our Single-Threaded Server into a Multithreaded Server](ch20-02-multithreaded.md)
-  - [Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup](ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md)
+  - [Building a Single-Threaded Web Server](ch21-01-single-threaded.md)
+  - [Turning Our Single-Threaded Server into a Multithreaded Server](ch21-02-multithreaded.md)
+  - [Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup](ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md)
 
 - [Apéndice](appendix-00.md)
   - [A - Palabras claves](appendix-01-keywords.md)
diff --git a/src/appendix-02-operators.md b/src/appendix-02-operators.md
index 19be59c21..85debe40f 100644
--- a/src/appendix-02-operators.md
+++ b/src/appendix-02-operators.md
@@ -102,15 +102,15 @@ del módulo de la jerarquía para un elemento.
 
 | Símbolos | Explicación |
 |--------|-------------|
-| `ident::ident` | Namespace path |
-| `::path` | Path relative to the crate root (i.e., an explicitly absolute path) |
-| `self::path` | Path relative to the current module (i.e., an explicitly relative path) |
-| `super::path` | Path relative to the parent of the current module |
-| `type::ident`, `::ident` | Associated constants, functions, and types |
-| `::...` | Associated item for a type that cannot be directly named (e.g., `<&T>::...`, `<[T]>::...`, etc.) |
-| `trait::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the trait that defines it |
-| `type::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the type for which it’s defined |
-| `::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the trait and type |
+| `ident::ident` | Ruta del Namespace |
+| `::path` | Ruta relativa al prelude externo, donde están enraizados todos los demás crates (es decir, una ruta explícitamente absoluta que incluye el nombre del crate) |
+| `self::path` | Ruta relativa al módulo actual (es decir, una ruta explícitamente relativa). |
+| `super::path` | Ruta relativa al módulo padre del módulo actual |
+| `type::ident`, `::ident` | Constantes, funciones y tipos asociados |
+| `::...` | Elemento asociado a un tipo que no puede nombrarse directamente (por ejemplo, `<&T>::...`, `<[T]>::...`, etc.) |
+| `trait::method(...)` | Desambiguar una llamada a un método nombrando el trait que lo define |
+| `type::method(...)` | Desambiguar una llamada a un método nombrando el tipo para el cual está definido |
+| `::method(...)` | Desambiguar una llamada a un método nombrando tanto el trait como el tipo |
 
 Tabla B-4 muestra los símbolos que aparecen en el contexto de usar parámetros de
 tipo genérico.
diff --git a/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md b/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md
index 9bd6442c3..6863c75e5 100644
--- a/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md
+++ b/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ La lista de traits derivables proporcionada en este apéndice no es
 exhaustiva: las bibliotecas pueden implementar `derive` para sus propios
 traits, lo que hace que la lista de traits que puede usar `derive` sea
 realmente abierta. Implementar `derive` implica usar una macro procedural, que
-se cubre en la sección [“Macros”][macros] del Capítulo 19.
+se cubre en la sección [“Macros”][macros] del Capítulo 20.
 
 ### `Debug` para el Output del programador
 
@@ -192,4 +192,4 @@ el tipo `T` almacenado en el `Option`.
 [creando-instancias-de-otras-instancias-con-sintaxis-de-struct-update]: ch05-01-defining-structs.html#creando-instancias-de-otras-instancias-con-sintaxis-de-struct-update
 [solo-datos-del-stack-copiar]: ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html#solo-datos-del-stack-copiar
 [ways-variables-and-data-interact-clone]: ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html#ways-variables-and-data-interact-clone
-[macros]: ch19-06-macros.html#macros
+[macros]: ch20-06-macros.html#macros
diff --git a/src/appendix-06-translation.md b/src/appendix-06-translation.md
index df5528731..37f37922d 100644
--- a/src/appendix-06-translation.md
+++ b/src/appendix-06-translation.md
@@ -5,27 +5,24 @@ consulte [la etiqueta de traducciones][label] para ayudar o informarnos sobre
 una nueva traducción.
 
 [label]: https://github.com/rust-lang/book/issues?q=is%3Aopen+is%3Aissue+label%3ATranslations
-
-- [Portugués (Brasil)](https://github.com/rust-br/rust-book-pt-br) (BR)
-- [Portugués](https://github.com/nunojesus/rust-book-pt-pt) (PT)
-- [Chino simplificado](https://github.com/KaiserY/trpl-zh-cn)
-- [Chino tradicional (Taiwán)](https://github.com/rust-tw/book-tw)
-- [Ucraniano](https://github.com/pavloslav/rust-book-uk-ua)
-- [Español](https://github.com/thecodix/book), [alternate](https://github.com/ManRR/rust-book-es)
-  , [esta versión](https://github.com/RustLangES/rust-book-es)
-- [Italiano](https://github.com/EmanueleGurini/book_it)
-- [Ruso](https://github.com/rust-lang-ru/book)
-- [Coreano](https://github.com/rinthel/rust-lang-book-ko)
-- [Japonés](https://github.com/rust-lang-ja/book-ja)
-- [Francés](https://github.com/Jimskapt/rust-book-fr)
-- [Polaco](https://github.com/paytchoo/book-pl)
-- [Cubano](https://github.com/agentzero1/book)
-- [Tagalo](https://github.com/josephace135/book)
+- [Português](https://github.com/rust-br/rust-book-pt-br) (BR)
+- [Português](https://github.com/nunojesus/rust-book-pt-pt) (PT)
+- [简体中文](https://github.com/KaiserY/trpl-zh-cn)
+- [正體中文](https://github.com/rust-tw/book-tw)
+- [Українська](https://rust-lang-ua.github.io/rustbook_ukrainian)
+- [Español](https://github.com/thecodix/book), [alternate](https://github.com/ManRR/rust-book-es), [esta versión](https://github.com/RustLangES/rust-book-es)
+- [Русский](https://github.com/rust-lang-ru/book)
+- [한국어](https://github.com/rinthel/rust-lang-book-ko)
+- [日本語](https://github.com/rust-lang-ja/book-ja)
+- [Français](https://github.com/Jimskapt/rust-book-fr)
+- [Polski](https://github.com/paytchoo/book-pl)
+- [Cebuano](https://github.com/agentzero1/book)
+- [Tagalog](https://github.com/josephace135/book)
 - [Esperanto](https://github.com/psychoslave/Rust-libro)
-- [Griego](https://github.com/TChatzigiannakis/rust-book-greek)
-- [Sueco](https://github.com/sebras/book)
-- [Persa](https://github.com/RustFarsi/book)
-- [Alemán](https://github.com/rust-lang-de/rustbook-de)
-- [Hindú](https://github.com/venkatarun95/rust-book-hindi)
-- [Tailandés](https://github.com/rust-lang-th/book-th)
-- [Danés](https://github.com/DanKHansen/book-dk)
+- [ελληνική](https://github.com/TChatzigiannakis/rust-book-greek)
+- [Svenska](https://github.com/sebras/book)
+- [Farsi](https://github.com/RustFarsi/book)
+- [Deutsch](https://github.com/rust-lang-de/rustbook-de)
+- [हिंदी](https://github.com/venkatarun95/rust-book-hindi)
+- [ไทย](https://github.com/rust-lang-th/book-th)
+- [Danske](https://github.com/DanKHansen/book-dk)
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/ch00-00-introduction.md b/src/ch00-00-introduction.md
index 50bda1607..792dfc42d 100644
--- a/src/ch00-00-introduction.md
+++ b/src/ch00-00-introduction.md
@@ -160,16 +160,19 @@ habilitan su funcionalidad.
 
 En el capítulo 16, recorreremos diferentes modelos de programación concurrente
 y hablaremos sobre cómo Rust te ayuda a programar en múltiples hilos sin
-temor. El capítulo 17 examina cómo los modismos de Rust se comparan con los
+temor. En el capítulo 17 nos basaremos en eso, explorando la sintaxis async y 
+await de Rust y el modelo de concurrencia ligero que admiten.
+
+El capítulo 18 examina cómo los modismos de Rust se comparan con los
 principios de programación orientada a objetos con los que podrías estar
 familiarizado.
 
-El capítulo 18 es una referencia a los patrones y el emparejamiento de patrones,
+El capítulo 19 es una referencia a los patrones y el emparejamiento de patrones,
 que son formas poderosas de expresar ideas en todo programa de Rust. El capítulo
-19 contiene un banquete de temas avanzados de interés, incluyendo Rust inseguro,
+20 contiene un banquete de temas avanzados de interés, incluyendo Rust inseguro,
 macros y más sobre lifetimes, traits, tipos, funciones y closures.
 
-En el capítulo 20, ¡completaremos un proyecto en el que implementaremos un
+En el capítulo 21, ¡completaremos un proyecto en el que implementaremos un
 servidor web de múltiples hilos de bajo nivel!
 
 Finalmente, algunos apéndices contienen información útil sobre el lenguaje en
diff --git a/src/ch01-01-installation.md b/src/ch01-01-installation.md
index 17469de41..43b0691d8 100644
--- a/src/ch01-01-installation.md
+++ b/src/ch01-01-installation.md
@@ -154,8 +154,17 @@ En cualquier momento en que se proporcione un tipo o una función de la bibliote
 estándar y no estés seguro de lo que hace o cómo usarlo, usa la documentación de
 la interfaz de programación de aplicaciones (API) para averiguarlo.
 
+### Editores de Texto y Entornos de Desarrollo Integrados
+
+Este libro no asume qué herramientas usas para escribir código en Rust. ¡Casi 
+cualquier editor de texto servirá! Sin embargo, muchos editores de texto y 
+entornos de desarrollo integrados (IDEs) tienen soporte integrado para Rust. 
+Siempre puedes encontrar una lista bastante actualizada de muchos editores e 
+IDEs en [la página de herramientas][tools] del sitio web de Rust.
+
 [otherinstall]: https://forge.rust-lang.org/infra/other-installation-methods.html
 [install]: https://www.rust-lang.org/tools/install
 [msvc]: https://rust-lang.github.io/rustup/installation/windows-msvc.html
 [community]: https://www.rust-lang.org/community
 [visualstudio]: https://visualstudio.microsoft.com/downloads/
+[tools]: https://www.rust-lang.org/tools
diff --git a/src/ch01-02-hello-world.md b/src/ch01-02-hello-world.md
index fcb68505c..2461b1d1e 100644
--- a/src/ch01-02-hello-world.md
+++ b/src/ch01-02-hello-world.md
@@ -131,7 +131,7 @@ Primero, el estilo de Rust es indentar con cuatro espacios, no con una tabulaci
 
 Segundo, `println!` llamamos a una macro de Rust. Si hubiéramos llamado a una
 función en su lugar, habríamos ingresado `println` (sin el `!`). Discutiremos las
-macros de Rust en más detalle en el Capítulo 19. Por ahora, solo necesitas saber
+macros de Rust en más detalle en el Capítulo 20. Por ahora, solo necesitas saber
 que usar un `!` significa que estamos llamando a una macro en lugar de una función
 normal y que las macros no siempre siguen las mismas reglas que las funciones.
 
diff --git a/src/ch01-03-hello-cargo.md b/src/ch01-03-hello-cargo.md
index 70e0b045c..e46def60d 100644
--- a/src/ch01-03-hello-cargo.md
+++ b/src/ch01-03-hello-cargo.md
@@ -120,7 +120,8 @@ tus proyectos. Hay un lugar para todo, y todo está en su lugar.
 Si comenzaste un proyecto que no usa Cargo, como hicimos con el proyecto
 “¡Hola, mundo!”, puedes convertirlo en un proyecto que sí use Cargo. Mueve el
 código del proyecto al directorio *src* y crea un archivo *Cargo.toml*
-adecuado.
+adecuado. Una forma sencilla de obtener el archivo *Cargo.toml* es ejecutar 
+`cargo init`, el cual lo creara automaticamente.
 
 ### Construir y ejecutar un proyecto de Cargo
 
diff --git a/src/ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.md b/src/ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.md
index e475deefa..03b874eb0 100644
--- a/src/ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.md
+++ b/src/ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.md
@@ -73,14 +73,13 @@ ingrese un valor, procesará ese valor y verificará que el valor esté en el
 formato esperado. Para comenzar, permitiremos al jugador ingresar una adivinanza.
 Ingresa el código de la Lista 2-1 en _src/main.rs_.
 
-Nombre de archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-01/src/main.rs:all}}
 ```
 
-Lista 2-1: Código que obtiene una adivinanza del usuario
-y la imprime
+
 
 Este código contiene mucha información, así que repasémoslo línea por línea.
 Para obtener la entrada del usuario y luego imprimir el resultado como salida,
@@ -319,7 +318,7 @@ input 6 -->
 ```console
 $ cargo run
    Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game)
-    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 6.44s
+    Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 6.44s
      Running `target/debug/guessing_game`
 Guess the number!
 Please input your guess.
@@ -392,29 +391,36 @@ rm Cargo.lock
 cargo clean
 cargo build -->
 
++
 ```console
 $ cargo build
     Updating crates.io index
-  Downloaded rand v0.8.5
-  Downloaded libc v0.2.127
-  Downloaded getrandom v0.2.7
-  Downloaded cfg-if v1.0.0
-  Downloaded ppv-lite86 v0.2.16
-  Downloaded rand_chacha v0.3.1
-  Downloaded rand_core v0.6.3
-   Compiling libc v0.2.127
-   Compiling getrandom v0.2.7
+     Locking 16 packages to latest compatible versions
+      Adding wasi v0.11.0+wasi-snapshot-preview1 (latest: v0.13.3+wasi-0.2.2)
+      Adding zerocopy v0.7.35 (latest: v0.8.9)
+      Adding zerocopy-derive v0.7.35 (latest: v0.8.9)
+  Downloaded syn v2.0.87
+  Downloaded 1 crate (278.1 KB) in 0.16s
+   Compiling proc-macro2 v1.0.89
+   Compiling unicode-ident v1.0.13
+   Compiling libc v0.2.161
    Compiling cfg-if v1.0.0
-   Compiling ppv-lite86 v0.2.16
-   Compiling rand_core v0.6.3
+   Compiling byteorder v1.5.0
+   Compiling getrandom v0.2.15
+   Compiling rand_core v0.6.4
+   Compiling quote v1.0.37
+   Compiling syn v2.0.87
+   Compiling zerocopy-derive v0.7.35
+   Compiling zerocopy v0.7.35
+   Compiling ppv-lite86 v0.2.20
    Compiling rand_chacha v0.3.1
    Compiling rand v0.8.5
    Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game)
-    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 2.53s
+    Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 3.69s
 ```
 
-Listado 2-2: La salida de ejecutar `cargo build` después
-de agregar el crate rand como una dependencia
+
 
 Es posible que veas números de versión diferentes (¡pero todos serán
 compatibles con el código, gracias a SemVer!) y líneas diferentes (dependiendo
@@ -450,7 +456,7 @@ cargo build -->
 ```console
 $ cargo build
    Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game)
-    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 2.53 secs
+    Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.13s
 ```
 
 Estas líneas muestran que Cargo solo actualiza la compilación con su pequeño
@@ -528,14 +534,13 @@ que se ensamblan a partir de un número de paquetes.
 Comencemos a usar `rand` para generar un número para adivinar. El siguiente
 paso es actualizar _src/main.rs_, como se muestra en el Listado 2-3.
 
-Nombre de archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-03/src/main.rs:all}}
 ```
 
-Listado 2-3: Agregando código para generar un número
-aleatorio
+
 
 Primero agregamos la línea `use rand::Rng;`. El trait `Rng` define métodos que
 los generadores de números aleatorios implementan, y este trait debe estar en
@@ -580,7 +585,7 @@ cargo run
 ```console
 $ cargo run
    Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game)
-    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 2.53s
+    Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.02s
      Running `target/debug/guessing_game`
 Guess the number!
 The secret number is: 7
@@ -589,7 +594,7 @@ Please input your guess.
 You guessed: 4
 
 $ cargo run
-    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.02s
+    Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.02s
      Running `target/debug/guessing_game`
 Guess the number!
 The secret number is: 83
@@ -609,14 +614,13 @@ Ahora que tenemos la entrada del usuario y un número aleatorio, podemos
 compararlos. Ese paso se muestra en el Listado 2-4. Tenga en cuenta que este
 código aún no se compilará, como explicaremos.
 
-Nombre del archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 2-4: Manejo de los posibles valores de retorno
-de la comparación de dos números
+
 
 Primero agregamos otra declaración `use`, que trae un tipo llamado
 `std::cmp::Ordering` al alcance de la biblioteca estándar. El tipo `Ordering`
@@ -639,7 +643,7 @@ busca cada patrón de brazo en orden. Los patrones y la construcción `match` so
 potentes características de Rust: le permiten expresar una variedad de
 situaciones que su código puede encontrar y se aseguran de que los maneje
 todos. Estas características se cubrirán en detalle en el Capítulo 6 y el
-Capítulo 18, respectivamente.
+Capítulo 19, respectivamente.
 
 Vamos a repasar un ejemplo con la expresión `match` que usamos aquí. Digamos
 que el usuario ha adivinado 50 y el número secreto generado aleatoriamente
@@ -710,14 +714,12 @@ en la expresión se refiere a la variable `guess` original que contenía la
 entrada como una cadena. El método `trim` en una instancia `String` eliminará
 cualquier espacio en blanco al principio y al final, lo que debemos hacer para
 poder comparar la cadena con el `u32`, que solo puede contener datos numéricos.
-El usuario debe presionar enter para satisfacer
-`read_line` e ingresar su conjetura, lo que agrega un carácter de nueva línea
-a la cadena. Por ejemplo, si el usuario escribe 5
-y presiona enter, `guess` se ve así: `5\n`. El
-`\n` representa "nueva línea". (En Windows, presionar enter resulta en un retorno de carro y una nueva
-línea, `\r\n`). El método `trim` elimina `\n` o `\r\n`, lo que resulta en solo
-`5`.
+El usuario debe presionar enter para satisfacer `read_line` e 
+ingresar su conjetura, lo que agrega un carácter de nueva línea a la cadena. Por 
+ejemplo, si el usuario escribe 5 y presiona enter, `guess` 
+se ve así: `5\n`. El `\n` representa "nueva línea". (En Windows, presionar 
+enter resulta en un retorno de carro y una nueva línea, `\r\n`). El 
+método `trim` elimina `\n` o `\r\n`, lo que resulta en solo `5`.
 
 El [método `parse` en las cadenas][parse] convierte una cadena
 en otro tipo. Aquí, lo usamos para convertir de una cadena a un número. Debemos
@@ -750,6 +752,7 @@ exitosamente la cadena en un número, devolverá la variante `Ok` del tipo
 
 
@@ -757,7 +760,7 @@ cargo run
 ```console
 $ cargo run
    Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game)
-    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.43s
+    Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.26s
      Running `target/debug/guessing_game`
 Guess the number!
 The secret number is: 58
@@ -781,8 +784,6 @@ adivinar una vez. ¡Cambiamos eso agregando un bucle!
 La palabra clave `loop` crea un bucle infinito. Agregaremos un bucle para darle
 a los usuarios más oportunidades para adivinar el número:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
-
 Nombre de archivo: src/main.rs
 
 ```rust,ignore
@@ -796,8 +797,8 @@ otra adivinanza para siempre, lo que introduce un nuevo problema! ¡Parece que e
 usuario no puede salir!
 
 El usuario siempre podría interrumpir el programa usando el atajo de teclado
-ctrl-c. Pero hay otra forma de escapar de este
-monstruo insaciable, como se mencionó en la discusión de `parse` en
+ctrl-c. Pero hay otra forma de escapar de este monstruo insaciable, 
+como se mencionó en la discusión de `parse` en
 [“Comparando la adivinanza con el número secreto”](#comparando-la-adivinanza-con-el-numero-secreto): si el usuario ingresa una respuesta que no es un número, el
 programa se bloqueará. Podemos aprovechar eso para permitir que el usuario
@@ -805,6 +806,7 @@ salga, como se muestra aquí:
 
 ) o cuando desea asegurarse de que
 siempre tenga un número fijo de elementos. Sin embargo, un arreglo no es tan
 flexible como el tipo vector. Un *vector* es un tipo de colección similar
diff --git a/src/ch03-03-how-functions-work.md b/src/ch03-03-how-functions-work.md
index dff957519..efd8e1fe4 100644
--- a/src/ch03-03-how-functions-work.md
+++ b/src/ch03-03-how-functions-work.md
@@ -118,16 +118,17 @@ Hemos usado realmente sentencias y expresiones. Crear una variable y asignarle
 un valor con la palabra clave `let` es una sentencia. En el Listado 3-1,
 `let y = 6;` es una sentencia.
 
-Nombre de archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/listing-03-01/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 3-1: Una declaración de la función `main` que contiene una sentencia
+
 
 Las definiciones de las funciones también son sentencias; todo el ejemplo
-anterior es una sentencia en sí misma.
+anterior es una sentencia en sí misma. (Como veremos a continuación, *ejecutar* 
+una función no es una sentencia.)
 
 Las sentencias no devuelven valores. Por lo tanto, no puedes asignar una
 sentencia `let` a otra variable, como intenta hacer el siguiente código;
diff --git a/src/ch03-05-control-flow.md b/src/ch03-05-control-flow.md
index 79791630e..a93054cf4 100644
--- a/src/ch03-05-control-flow.md
+++ b/src/ch03-05-control-flow.md
@@ -126,14 +126,13 @@ Dado que `if` es una expresión, podemos usarlo en el lado derecho de una
 declaración `let` para asignar el resultado a una variable, como en el Listado
 3-2.
 
-Nombre de archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/listing-03-02/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 3-2: Asignando el resultado de una expresión
-`if` a una variable
+
 
 La variable `number` estará vinculada a un valor basado en el resultado de la
 expresión `if`. Ejecute este código para ver qué sucede:
@@ -200,7 +199,7 @@ que se vea así:
 
 Cuando ejecutemos este programa, veremos `again!` impreso una y otra vez
 continuamente hasta que detengamos manualmente el programa. La mayoría de los
-terminales admiten el atajo de teclado ctrl-c
+terminales admiten el atajo de teclado ctrl-c
 para interrumpir un programa que está atascado en un bucle continuo.
 Inténtelo:
 
@@ -213,7 +212,7 @@ CTRL-C
 ```console
 $ cargo run
    Compiling loops v0.1.0 (file:///projects/loops)
-    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.29s
+    Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.08s
      Running `target/debug/loops`
 again!
 again!
@@ -222,8 +221,7 @@ again!
 ^Cagain!
 ```
 
-El símbolo `^C` representa dónde presionó ctrl-c. Puede que vea o no la palabra `again!`
+El símbolo `^C` representa dónde presionó ctrl-c. Puede que vea o no la palabra `again!`
 impresa después del `^C`, dependiendo de dónde estaba el código en el bucle
 cuando recibió la señal de interrupción.
 
@@ -298,14 +296,13 @@ integrada para ello, llamada `while` loop. En el Listado 3-3, usamos `while`
 para ejecutar el programa tres veces, contando hacia atrás cada vez, y luego,
 después del bucle, imprimir un mensaje y salir.
 
-Nombre de archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/listing-03-03/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 3-3: Usando un bucle `while` para ejecutar código
-mientras una condición es verdadera
+
 
 Esta expresion elimina mucho anidamiento que sería necesario si usara `loop`,
 `if`, `else` y `break`, y es más claro. Mientras una condición se evalúa como
@@ -319,14 +316,13 @@ Tu puedes también puedes usar el `while` para recorrer los elementos de una
 colección, justo como un arreglo. Por ejemplo, el bucle en el Listado 3-4
 muestra cada elemento en el arreglo `a`.
 
-Nombre de archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/listing-03-04/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 3-4: Bucle a través de cada elemento de una
-colección usando un bucle `while`
+
 
 Aquí, el código cuenta hacia arriba a través de los elementos en el arreglo. Se
 inicia en el índice `0`, y luego se ejecuta hasta que alcanza el índice final
@@ -353,14 +349,13 @@ Como una alternativa más concisa, puede usar un bucle `for` y ejecutar algún
 código para cada elemento en una colección. Un bucle `for` se ve como el código
 en el Listado 3-5.
 
-Nombre de archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/listing-03-05/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 3-5: Bucle a través de cada elemento de una
-colección usando un bucle `for`
+
 
 Cuando ejecutamos este código, veremos la misma salida que en el Listado 3-4.
 Lo más importante es que ahora hemos aumentado la seguridad del código y
diff --git a/src/ch04-01-what-is-ownership.md b/src/ch04-01-what-is-ownership.md
index 4aac503e5..ff5e5677d 100644
--- a/src/ch04-01-what-is-ownership.md
+++ b/src/ch04-01-what-is-ownership.md
@@ -129,11 +129,13 @@ punto en que se declara hasta el final del _contexto de ejecución_ actual. El l
 muestra un programa con comentarios que anotan dónde sería válida la variable
 `s`.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-01/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 4-1: Una variable y el contexto de ejecución en el que es válida
+
 
 En otras palabras, hay dos puntos importantes en el tiempo aquí:
 
@@ -261,12 +263,13 @@ situaciones ahora.
 Varias variables pueden interactuar con los mismos datos de diferentes formas
 en Rust. Veamos un ejemplo usando un entero en la Lista 4-2.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-02/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Lista 4-2: Asignando el valor entero de la variable `x`
-a `y`
+
 
 Podemos adivinar lo que está haciendo: "vincular el valor `5` a `x`; luego
 hacer una copia del valor en `x` y vincularlo a `y`". Ahora tenemos dos
@@ -375,6 +378,35 @@ creará automáticamente "copias profundas" de tus datos. Por lo tanto, cualquie
 copia _automática_ se puede asumir que es económica en términos de rendimiento
 en tiempo de ejecución.
 
+#### Alcance y Asignación
+
+Lo inverso también es cierto para la relación entre el alcance, la propiedad y 
+la liberación de memoria mediante la función `drop`. Cuando asignas un valor 
+completamente nuevo a una variable existente, Rust llamará a `drop` y liberará 
+inmediatamente la memoria del valor original. Considera este código, por 
+ejemplo:
+
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04b-replacement-drop/src/main.rs:here}}
+```
+
+Inicialmente, declaramos una variable `s` y la vinculamos a un `String` con el 
+valor `"hola"`. Luego, inmediatamente creamos un nuevo `String` con el valor 
+`"ahoy"` y lo asignamos a `s`. En este punto, nada hace referencia al valor 
+original en el heap.
+
+

+{{#include img/trpl04-05.svg}}
+

+
+Figura 4-5: Representación en memoria después de que el 
+valor inicial ha sido completamente reemplazado.
+
+El string original, por lo tanto, sale inmediatamente de su alcance. Rust 
+ejecutará la función `drop` sobre él y su memoria será liberada de inmediato. 
+Cuando imprimimos el valor al final, será `"ahoy, mundo!"`.
+
 
 
 
@@ -454,14 +486,13 @@ valor a una variable. Pasar una variable a una función moverá o copiará, como
 hace la asignación. La Lista 4-3 tiene un ejemplo con algunas anotaciones que
 muestran dónde entran y salen las variables del alcance.
 
-Nombre del archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-03/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Lista 4-3: Funciones con propiedad y alcance
-anotados
+
 
 Si intentamos usar `s` después de llamar a `tomar_ownership`, Rust lanzaría un
 error de tiempo de compilación. Estas comprobaciones estáticas nos protegen de
@@ -474,14 +505,13 @@ Los valores de retorno también pueden transferir la propiedad. La Lista 4-4
 muestra un ejemplo de una función que devuelve algún valor, con anotaciones
 similares a las de la Lista 4-3.
 
-Nombre del archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-04/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Lista 4-4: Transferencia de propiedad de los valores
-de retorno
+
 
 La propiedad (ownership) de una variable sigue el mismo patrón cada vez:
 asignar un valor a otra variable lo mueve. Cuando una variable que incluye datos
@@ -497,14 +527,13 @@ que resulte del cuerpo de la función que también podríamos querer devolver.
 Rust nos permite devolver múltiples valores usando una tupla, como se muestra
 en la Lista 4-5.
 
-Nombre del archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-05/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Lista 4-5: Devolución de la propiedad de los
-parámetros
+
 
 Pero esto es demasiado ceremonioso y mucho trabajo para un concepto que debería
 ser común. Afortunadamente para nosotros, Rust tiene una característica para
diff --git a/src/ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.md b/src/ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.md
index 180a9dfad..d942e5f3c 100644
--- a/src/ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.md
+++ b/src/ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.md
@@ -13,24 +13,26 @@ particular para la vida de esa referencia.
 Aquí está cómo definirías y usarías una función `calcular_longitud` que tiene
 una referencia a un objeto como parámetro en lugar de tomar la propiedad del valor.
 
-Nombre de archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-07-reference/src/main.rs:all}}
 ```
 
+
+
 Primero, ten en cuenta que todo el código de la tupla en la declaración de la
 variable y el valor de retorno de la función ha desaparecido. En segundo
 lugar, observe que pasamos `&s1` a `calcular_longitud` y, en su definición,
 tomamos `&String` en lugar de `String`. Este signo ampersands (&) representa
 *referencia*, y te permiten referirte a algún valor sin tomar la propiedad de
-él. La Figura 4-5 representa este concepto.
+él. La Figura 4-6 representa este concepto.
 
 

-{{#include img/trpl04-05.svg }}
+{{#include img/trpl04-06.svg }}
 

 
-Figura 4-5: Un diagrama de `&String s` apuntando a `String
+Figura 4-6: Un diagrama de `&String s` apuntando a `String
 s1`
 
 > Nota: Lo opuesto a la referencia usando `&` es *desreferenciar*, que se
@@ -69,13 +71,13 @@ Cuando termines, tienes que devolverlo. No lo posees.
 Entonces, ¿qué pasa si intentamos modificar algo que estamos prestando? Prueba
 el código en el Listado 4-6. Spoiler alert: ¡no funciona!
 
-Nombre de archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-06/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 4-6: Intentando modificar un valor prestado
+
 
 Aquí está el error:
 
@@ -92,12 +94,14 @@ Podemos arreglar el código del Listado 4-6 para permitirnos modificar un valor
 prestado con solo unos pequeños cambios que usen, en su lugar, una
 *referencia mutable*:
 
-Nombre de archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-09-fixes-listing-04-06/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
+
+
 Primero cambiamos `s` a `mut`. Luego creamos una referencia mutable con `&mut
 s` donde llamamos a la función `modificar`, y actualizamos la firma de la función
 para aceptar una referencia mutable con `un_string: &mut String`. Esto hace
@@ -107,12 +111,14 @@ Las referencias mutables tienen una gran restricción: si tienes una referencia
 mutable a un valor, no puedes tener otras referencias a ese valor. Este código
 que intenta crear dos referencias mutables a `s` fallará:
 
-Nombre de archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-10-multiple-mut-not-allowed/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
+
+
 Aquí está el error:
 
 ```console
@@ -206,14 +212,14 @@ de que la referencia a los datos lo haga.
 Intentemos crear una referencia colgante para ver cómo Rust los previene con un
 error de tiempo de compilación:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
-
-Nombre de archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-14-dangling-reference/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
+
+
 Aquí está el error:
 
 ```console
@@ -237,11 +243,13 @@ el tipo de retorno de la función contiene un valor prestado, pero no hay ningú
 valor que pueda ser prestado
 ```
 
-Nombre de archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-15-dangling-reference-annotated/src/main.rs:here}}
-````
+```
+
+
 
 Porque `s` se crea dentro de `colgar`, cuando el código de `colgar` finaliza,
 `s` se desalocará. Pero intentamos devolver una referencia a él. Eso significa
diff --git a/src/ch04-03-slices.md b/src/ch04-03-slices.md
index a525aff44..804f5467a 100644
--- a/src/ch04-03-slices.md
+++ b/src/ch04-03-slices.md
@@ -23,14 +23,13 @@ tenemos una forma de hablar sobre "una _porción_ de un string". Sin embargo,
 podríamos retornar el índice del final de la palabra, indicado por un espacio.
 Probemos eso, como se muestra en Listing 4-7.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-07/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 4-7: La función `first_word` retorna un
-valor de índice en bytes dentro de un parámetro `String`
+
 
 Dado que necesitamos recorrer el `String` elemento por elemento y comprobar si
 un valor es un espacio, convertiremos nuestro `String` a un array de bytes
@@ -77,14 +76,13 @@ En otras palabras, debido a que es un valor separado del `String`, no hay
 garantía de que siga siendo válido en el futuro. Considera el programa en
 Listing 4-8 que usa la función `first_word` del Listing 4-7.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-08/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 4-8: Almacenando el resultado de llamar a
-la función `first_word` y luego cambiar el contenido del `String`
+
 
 Este programa compila sin errores y también lo hará si usáramos `word` después
 de llamar a `s.clear()`. Debido a que `word` no está conectado al estado de `s`
@@ -128,15 +126,15 @@ inicial y la longitud del slice, lo que corresponde a `ending_index` menos
 sería un slice que contiene un puntero al byte en el índice 6 de `s` con un
 valor de longitud de `5`.
 
-Figure 4-6 muestra esto en el diagrama.
+Figure 4-7 muestra esto en el diagrama.
 
 Three tables: a table representing the stack data of s, which points
 to the byte at index 0 in a table of the string data "hello world" on
 the heap. The third table rep-resents the stack data of the slice world, which
 has a length value of 5 and points to byte 6 of the heap data table.
+src="img/trpl04-07.svg" class="center" style="width: 50%;" />
 
-Figure 4-6: String slice referencia una parte de un
+Figure 4-7: String slice referencia una parte de un
 `String`
 
 Con la sintaxis de rango `..` de Rust, si queremos comenzar en el índice 0,
@@ -185,12 +183,14 @@ let slice = &s[..];
 Con toda esta información en mente, reescribamos `first_word` para retornar un
 slice. El tipo que significa “string slice” se escribe como `&str`:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-18-first-word-slice/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
+
+
 Obtenemos el índice para el final de la palabra de la misma manera que lo
 hicimos en el Listing 4-7, buscando la primera aparición de un espacio. Cuando
 encontramos un espacio, retornamos un string slice usando el inicio del string
@@ -217,12 +217,14 @@ Los Slices hacen que este error sea imposible y nos permiten saber que tenemos
 un problema en nuestro código mucho antes. El uso de la versión slice de
 `first_word` arrojará un error en tiempo de compilación:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-19-slice-error/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
+
+
 Aquí está el error del compilador:
 
 ```console
@@ -270,13 +272,13 @@ Un Rustacean más experimentado escribiría la firma mostrada en el Listing 4-9
 en su lugar porque nos permite usar la misma función en ambos valores `&String`
 y `&str`.
 
++
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-09/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 4-9:
-Mejorando la función `first_word` usando un string slice como parámetro
-para el tipo del parámetro de`s`
+
 
 Si tenemos un string slice, podemos pasar directamente ese valor. Si tenemos
 un `String`, podemos pasar un slice del `String` o una referencia al `String`.
@@ -289,12 +291,14 @@ Definir una función para tomar un string slice en lugar de una referencia a un
 `String` hace que nuestra API sea más general y útil sin perder ninguna
 funcionalidad:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-09/src/main.rs:usage}}
 ```
 
+
+
 ### Otros Slices
 
 Los string slices, como puedes imaginar, son específicos para strings. Pero
diff --git a/src/ch05-01-defining-structs.md b/src/ch05-01-defining-structs.md
index 9dacbcc1b..d41625db0 100644
--- a/src/ch05-01-defining-structs.md
+++ b/src/ch05-01-defining-structs.md
@@ -15,13 +15,13 @@ Entonces, entre llaves, definimos los nombres y tipos de datos, que llamaremos
 _campos_. Por ejemplo, en el Listing 5-1 mostramos una definición de un struct
 que almacena información sobre una cuenta de usuario.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-01/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 5-1: Una definición de struct `User`
+
 
 Para usar un struct después de haberlo definido, creamos una _instancia_ de ese
 struct especificando valores concretos para cada uno de los campos. Creamos una
@@ -34,14 +34,13 @@ el tipo, y las instancias llenan esa plantilla con datos particulares para
 crear valores del tipo. Por ejemplo, podemos declarar un usuario en particular
 como se muestra en el Listing 5-2.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-02/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 5-2: Creando una instancia del struct `User`
-
+
 
 Para acceder a un valor específico de un struct, usamos la notación de punto.
 Por ejemplo, para acceder a la dirección de correo electrónico de este usuario,
@@ -49,14 +48,13 @@ usamos `user1.email`. Si la instancia es mutable, podemos cambiar un valor
 asignando en un campo particular. El Listing 5-3 muestra cómo cambiar el valor
 en el campo `email` de una instancia mutable de `User`.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-03/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 5-3: Cambiando el valor en el campo `email` de una
-instancia `User`
+
 
 Nota que toda la instancia debe ser mutable; Rust no nos permite marcar solo
 ciertos campos como mutables. Como cualquier expresión, podemos construir una
@@ -68,14 +66,13 @@ Listing 5-4 muestra una función `build_user` que devuelve una instancia de
 `active` obtiene el valor de `true`, y el campo `sign_in_count` obtiene el
 valor de `1`.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-04/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 5-4: Una función `build_user` que toma un email
-y username y devuelve una instancia `User`
+
 
 Tiene sentido nombrar los parámetros de la función con el mismo nombre que los
 campos del struct, pero tener que repetir los nombres de los campos y
@@ -95,15 +92,13 @@ Field Init_ para reescribir `build_user` para que se comporte exactamente igual
 pero no tenga la repetición de `username` y `email`, como se muestra en el
 Listing 5-5.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-05/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 5-5: Una función `build_user` que usa field init
-abreviado porque los parámetros `username` e `email` tienen el mismo nombre que
-los campos del struct
+
 
 Aquí, estamos creando una nueva instancia del struct `User`, que tiene un
 campo llamado `email`. Queremos establecer el valor del campo `email` en el
@@ -122,21 +117,20 @@ regularmente, sin la sintaxis de actualización. Establecemos un nuevo valor par
 `email`, pero de lo contrario usamos los mismos valores de `user1` que creamos
 en el Listing 5-2.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-06/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 5-6: Creando una nueva instancia `User` usando uno
-de los valores de `user1`
+
 
 Usando la sintaxis de struct update, podemos lograr el mismo efecto con menos
 código, como se muestra en el Listing 5-7. La sintaxis `..` especifica que los
 campos restantes que no se establecen explícitamente deben tener el mismo valor
 que los campos en la instancia dada.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-07/src/main.rs:here}}
@@ -145,6 +139,7 @@ que los campos en la instancia dada.
 Listing 5-7: Usando una sintaxis de struct update para
 introducir un nuevo valor `email` para una instancia `User` pero para usar el
 resto de los valores de `user1`
+
 
 El código en el Listing 5-7 también crea una instancia en `user2` que tiene un
 valor diferente para `email` pero tiene los mismos valores para los campos
@@ -164,7 +159,8 @@ los valores de `active` y `sign_in_count` de `user1`, entonces `user1` todavía
 sería válido después de crear `user2`. Tanto `active` como `sign_in_count` son
 tipos que implementan la trait `Copy`, por lo que el comportamiento que
 discutimos en la sección [“Datos de pila: Copy”][copy] se
-aplicaría.
+aplicaría. Nosotros podemos aún usar `user1.email` en este ejemplo, debido a que 
+el *valor no es movido*.
 
 ### Usando Structs de Tuplas sin Campos Nombrados para Crear Diferentes Tipos
 
@@ -180,12 +176,14 @@ Para definir un struct de tupla, comience con la palabra clave `struct` y el
 nombre del struct seguido por los tipos en la tupla. Por ejemplo, aquí
 definimos y usamos dos structs de tupla llamados `Color` y `Point`:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/no-listing-01-tuple-structs/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
+
+
 Nota que los valores `black` y `origin` son diferentes tipos porque son
 instancias de diferentes structs de tupla. Cada struct que defina es su propio
 tipo, incluso si los campos dentro del struct tienen los mismos tipos. Por
@@ -194,6 +192,9 @@ ejemplo, una función que toma un parámetro de tipo `Color` no puede tomar un
 valores `i32`. De lo contrario, las instancias de structs de tupla son
 similares a las tuplas en que puede descomponerlas en sus piezas individuales,
 y puede usar un `.` seguido por el índice para acceder a un valor individual.
+A diferencia de las tuplas, las estructuras de tuplas requieren que nombre del 
+tipo de estructura cuando las desestructuras. Por ejemplo, escribiríamos 
+`let Punto(x, y, z) = punto`.
 
 ### Structs de Unidad sin Campos
 
@@ -205,12 +206,14 @@ trait en algún tipo, pero no tiene datos que desea almacenar en el tipo
 propio. Discutiremos los traits en el Capítulo 10. Aquí hay un ejemplo de
 declarar e instanciar un struct de unidad llamado `AlwaysEqual`:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/no-listing-04-unit-like-structs/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
+
+
 Para definir `AlwaysEqual`, usamos la palabra clave `struct`, el nombre que
 queremos y luego un punto y coma. ¡No se necesitan llaves ni paréntesis! Luego
 podemos obtener una instancia de `AlwaysEqual` en la variable `subject` de la
@@ -238,7 +241,7 @@ tipo, incluidos los structs de unidad.
 > referencia en un struct sin especificar lifetimes, como el siguiente; esto
 > no funcionará:
 >
-> Filename: src/main.rs
+>  >
 > 
 >
@@ -260,6 +263,8 @@ tipo, incluidos los structs de unidad.
 > }
 > ```
 >
+> 
+>
 > El compilador se quejará de que necesita especificadores de lifetime:
 >
 > ```console
diff --git a/src/ch05-02-example-structs.md b/src/ch05-02-example-structs.md
index e85d6b950..e809b3ef4 100644
--- a/src/ch05-02-example-structs.md
+++ b/src/ch05-02-example-structs.md
@@ -10,14 +10,13 @@ el ancho y el alto de un rectángulo especificado en píxeles y calculará el á
 del rectángulo. La lista 5-8 muestra un programa corto con una forma de hacer
 exactamente eso en el _src/main.rs_ de nuestro proyecto.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-08/src/main.rs:all}}
 ```
 
-Listing 5-8: Calculando el área de un rectángulo
-especificado por separado en variables ancho y alto
+
 
 Ahora, ejecuta este programa usando `cargo run`:
 
@@ -46,14 +45,13 @@ una forma de hacerlo en la sección [“El Tipo Tupla”][el-tipo-tupla] como hemos usado en
 capítulos anteriores. Sin embargo, esto no funcionará.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-11/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 5-11: Intentando imprimir una instancia de
-`Rectangle`
+
 
 Cuando compilamos este código, obtenemos un error con este mensaje principal:
 
@@ -168,14 +165,13 @@ disponible para nuestra estructura. Para hacer eso, agregamos el atributo
 externo `#[derive(Debug)]` justo antes de la definición de la estructura, como
 se muestra en la lista 5-12.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-12/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 5-12: Agregando el atributo para derivar el trait
-`Debug` e imprimiendo la instancia `Rectangle` usando el formato debug
+
 
 Ahora, cuando compilamos el código, no obtendremos ningún error, y veremos la
 siguiente salida:
diff --git a/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md b/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md
index 38d57040f..4b81e7ceb 100644
--- a/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md
+++ b/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md
@@ -17,14 +17,13 @@ Vamos a cambiar la función `area` que tiene una instancia de `Rectangle` como
 parámetro y en vez de eso definamos un método `area` en el struct `Rectangle`,
 como se muestra en el Listado 5-13.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-13/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 5-13: Definición de un método `area` en el struct
-`Rectangle` 
+
 
 Para definir la función dentro del contexto de `Rectangle`, iniciamos un bloque
 `impl` (implementación). Todo lo que esté dentro de este bloque `impl` estará
@@ -69,12 +68,14 @@ Nota que podemos elegir darle al método el mismo nombre que uno de los campos
 del struct. Por ejemplo, podemos definir un método en `Rectangle` que se llame
 `width`:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/no-listing-06-method-field-interaction/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
+
+
 Aquí, estamos eligiendo que el método `width` retorne `true` si el valor en el
 campo `width` de la instancia es mayor que `0` y `false` si el valor es `0`:
 podemos usar un campo dentro de un método del mismo nombre para cualquier
@@ -149,14 +150,13 @@ contrario, debería retornar `false`. Es decir, una vez que hayamos definido el
 método `can_hold`, queremos poder escribir el programa mostrado en el
 Listing 5-14.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-14/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 5-14: Uso del método `can_hold` aún no escrito
-
+
 
 La salida esperada se vería como la siguiente porque ambas dimensiones de
 `rect2` son más pequeñas que las dimensiones de `rect1`, pero `rect3` es más
@@ -181,14 +181,13 @@ alto de `self` son mayores que el ancho y alto del otro `Rectangle`,
 respectivamente. Agreguemos el nuevo método `can_hold` al bloque `impl` del
 Listing 5-13 que se muestra en el Listing 5-15.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-15/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 5-15: Implementando el método `can_hold` en
-`Rectangle` que toma otra instancia de `Rectangle` como un parámetro
+
 
 Cuando ejecutamos este código con la función `main` en el Listing 5-14,
 obtendremos el resultado deseado. Los métodos pueden tomar múltiples parámetros
@@ -234,12 +233,13 @@ Cada struct es permitido tener múltiples bloques `impl`. Por ejemplo, el
 Listing 5-15 es equivalente al código mostrado en el Listing 5-16, que tiene
 cada método en su propio bloque `impl`.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-16/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 5-16: Reescribiendo Listing 5-15 usando múltiples
-bloques `impl`
+
 
 No hay razón para separar estos métodos en múltiples bloques `impl` aquí, pero
 esta es una sintaxis válida. Veremos un caso en el que los múltiples bloques
@@ -259,6 +259,6 @@ Pero los structs no son la única forma de crear tipos personalizados: pasemos
 a la función enum de Rust para agregar otra herramienta a su toolbox.
 
 [enums]: ch06-00-enums.html
-[trait-objects]: ch17-02-trait-objects.md
+[trait-objects]: ch18-02-trait-objects.md
 [public]: ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.html#exponiendo-rutas-con-la-palabra-clave-pub
 [modules]: ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.html
diff --git a/src/ch06-01-defining-an-enum.md b/src/ch06-01-defining-an-enum.md
index e4b2050a5..0fc1a7e78 100644
--- a/src/ch06-01-defining-an-enum.md
+++ b/src/ch06-01-defining-an-enum.md
@@ -65,12 +65,13 @@ dirección IP; solo sabemos qué tipo es. Dado que acabas de aprender sobre los
 structs en el Capítulo 5, podrías estar tentado a abordar este problema con
 structs como se muestra en el Listing 6-1.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/listing-06-01/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 6-1: Almacenando los datos y la variante
-`IpAddrKind` de una dirección IP usando un `struct`
+
 
 Aquí, hemos definido un struct `IpAddr` que tiene dos campos: un campo `kind`
 que es de tipo `IpAddrKind` (el `enum` que definimos anteriormente) y un campo
@@ -148,12 +149,13 @@ contexto de ejecución. Hablaremos más sobre cómo traer tipos al contexto de e
 Veamos otro ejemplo de una enumeración en el Listing 6-2: este tiene una amplia
 variedad de tipos incrustados en sus variantes.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/listing-06-02/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 6-2: Un enum `Message` cuyas variantes almacenan
-diferentes cantidades y tipos de valores
+
 
 Este `enum` tiene cuatro variantes con diferentes tipos:
 
diff --git a/src/ch06-02-match.md b/src/ch06-02-match.md
index 92ae6a7c0..8084a5ef6 100644
--- a/src/ch06-02-match.md
+++ b/src/ch06-02-match.md
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ Rust tiene una construcción de flujo de control extremadamente poderosa llamada
 `match` que te permite comparar un valor contra una serie de patrones y luego
 ejecutar código basado en qué patrón coincide. Los patrones pueden estar
 compuestos de valores literales, nombres de variables, comodines y muchas otras
-cosas; El [Capítulo 18][ch18-00-patterns] cubre todos los
+cosas; El [Capítulo 19][ch19-00-patterns] cubre todos los
 diferentes tipos de patrones y lo que hacen. El poder de `match` viene de la
 expresividad de los patrones y el hecho de que el compilador confirma que se
 tratan todos los casos posibles.
@@ -26,12 +26,13 @@ una función que tome una moneda desconocida de los Estados Unidos y, de una
 manera similar a la máquina de conteo, determine qué moneda es y devuelva su
 valor en centavos, como se muestra en el Listing 6-3.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/listing-06-03/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 6-3: Una expresión `enum` y `match` que tiene
-las variantes del enum como sus patrones
+
 
 Desglosemos el uso de `match` en la función `value_in_cents`.
 Primero listamos la palabra clave `match` seguida de una expresión,
@@ -85,12 +86,13 @@ cambiar el tipo de `value_in_cents` a `()`, ya que no estamos devolviendo un
 valor entero, sino que estamos ejecutando código. El código completo se muestra
 en el Listing 6-4.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/listing-06-04/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 6-4: Un enum `Coin` en el cual la variante
-`Quarter` también contiene un valor `UsState`
+
 
 Imaginemos que tenemos un amigo que está tratando de coleccionar todas las
 monedas de 50 estados. Mientras clasificamos nuestra moneda suelta por tipo de
@@ -132,12 +134,13 @@ operación.
 Esta función es muy fácil de escribir, gracias a `match`, y se verá como el
 Listing 6-5.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/listing-06-05/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 6-5: Una función que usa una expresión `match` en
-un `Option`
+
 
 Examinemos la primera ejecución de `plus_one` en más detalle. Cuando llamamos
 a `plus_one(five)`, la variable `x` en el cuerpo de `plus_one` tendrá el
@@ -266,9 +269,10 @@ que no coincida con un patrón en una Opción anterior, y no queremos ejecutar
 ningún código en este caso.
 
 Hay más sobre patrones y coincidencias que cubriremos en el [Capítulo
-18][ch18-00-patterns]. Por ahora, vamos a pasar a la sintaxis
+19][ch19-00-patterns]. Por ahora, vamos a pasar a la sintaxis
 `if let` que puede ser útil en situaciones en las que la expresión `match` es
 un poco larga.
 
 [tuples]: ch03-02-data-types.html#el-tipo-tupla
-[ch18-00-patterns]: ch18-00-patterns.html
+
+[ch19-00-patterns]: ch19-00-patterns.html
diff --git a/src/ch06-03-if-let.md b/src/ch06-03-if-let.md
index 870869120..fe2ce5af3 100644
--- a/src/ch06-03-if-let.md
+++ b/src/ch06-03-if-let.md
@@ -6,12 +6,14 @@ resto. Considera el programa en el Listado 6-6 que coincide con un valor
 `Option` en la variable `config_max` pero solo quiere ejecutar el código si
 el valor es la variante `Some`.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/listing-06-06/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 6-6: Un `match` que solo se preocupa por ejecutar
-código cuando el valor es `Some`
+
+
 
 Si el valor es `Some`, imprimimos el valor en la variante `Some` vinculando el
 valor a la variable `max` en el patrón. No queremos hacer nada con el valor
@@ -32,12 +34,14 @@ igual. Funciona de la misma manera que un `match`, donde la expresión se da al
 `match` y el patrón es su primer brazo. En este caso, el patrón es `Some(max)`,
 y el `max` se vincula al valor dentro del `Some`. Luego podemos usar `max` en
 el cuerpo del bloque `if let` de la misma manera que usamos `max` en el brazo
-`match` correspondiente. El código en el bloque `if let` no se ejecuta si el
-valor no coincide con el patrón.
+`match` correspondiente. El código en el bloque `if let` solo se ejecuta si el
+valor coincide con el patrón.
 
-Usar `if let` significa menos escritura, menos indentación y menos código repetitivo. Sin embargo, pierdes la verificación exhaustiva que hace cumplir
+Usar `if let` significa menos escritura, menos indentación y menos código 
+repetitivo. Sin embargo, pierdes la verificación exhaustiva que hace cumplir
 `match`. Elegir entre `match` e `if let` depende de lo que estés haciendo en tu
-situación particular y de si ser más conciso a cambio de la verificación exhaustiva es un intercambio adecuado.
+situación particular y de si ser más conciso a cambio de la verificación 
+exhaustiva es un intercambio adecuado.
 
 En otras palabras, puedes pensar en `if let` como una sintaxis dulce para un
 `match` que ejecuta código cuando el valor coincide con un patrón y luego
@@ -48,8 +52,8 @@ Podemos incluir un `else` con un `if let`. El bloque de código que va con el
 expresión `match` que es equivalente al `if let` y `else`. Recuerda la
 definición de `Coin` en el Listado 6-4, donde la variante `Quarter` también
 tenía un valor `UsState`. Si quisiéramos contar todas las monedas que no son
-cuartos que vemos mientras también anunciamos el estado de los cuartos, podríamos
-hacerlo con una expresión `match`, como esta:
+cuartos que vemos mientras también anunciamos el estado de los cuartos, 
+podríamos hacerlo con una expresión `match`, como esta:
 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-13-count-and-announce-match/src/main.rs:here}}
diff --git a/src/ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.md b/src/ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.md
index 9ce4ca588..79c5b060c 100644
--- a/src/ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.md
+++ b/src/ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.md
@@ -72,21 +72,25 @@ backyard
 
 El crate raíz es _src/main.rs_, y contiene:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/quick-reference-example/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
+
+
 La línea `mod garden;` le dice al compilador que incluya el código que encuentra
 en _src/garden.rs_, que es:
 
-Filename: src/garden.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/quick-reference-example/src/garden.rs}}
 ```
 
+
+
 Aquí, `pub mod vegetables;` significa que el código en _src/garden/vegetables.rs_
 también se incluye. Ese código es:
 
@@ -124,14 +128,13 @@ ejecutando `cargo new restaurant --lib`. Luego ingresa el código en el
 Listado 7-1 para definir algunos módulos y firmas de funciones. Aquí está la
 sección _front of house_:
 
-Nombre de archivo: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-01/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-1: Un módulo `front_of_house` que contiene otros
-módulos que luego contienen funciones
+
 
 Definimos un módulo con la palabra clave `mod` seguida del nombre del módulo
 (en este caso, `front_of_house`). El cuerpo del módulo va dentro de llaves.
@@ -154,6 +157,8 @@ del crate, conocida como el _árbol de módulos_.
 
 El Listado 7-2 muestra el árbol de módulos para la estructura en el listado 7-1
 
++
 ```text
 crate
  └── front_of_house
@@ -166,8 +171,7 @@ crate
          └── take_payment
 ```
 
-Listado 7-2: El árbol de módulos para el código del
-listado 7-1
+
 
 Este árbol muestra como algunos de los módulos se anidan dentro de otros módulos; 
 por ejemplo, `hosting` se anida dentro de `front_of_house`. El árbol también 
diff --git a/src/ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.md b/src/ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.md
index b5fcca45f..cc62d1fae 100644
--- a/src/ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.md
+++ b/src/ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.md
@@ -30,14 +30,13 @@ librería, así que la marcamos con la palabra clave `pub`. En la sección
 [“Exponiendo Rutas con la palabra clave `pub`”][pub], iremos en
 más detalle sobre `pub`.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-03/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-3: Llamando a la función `add_to_waitlist` usando
-rutas absolutas y relativas
+
 
 La primera vez que llamamos a la función `add_to_waitlist` en `eat_at_restaurant`,
 usamos una ruta absoluta. La función `add_to_waitlist` está definida en el mismo
@@ -73,12 +72,13 @@ independientemente.
 ¡Intentemos compilar el listado 7-3 y averigüemos por qué aún no compila! Los
 errores que obtenemos se muestran en el listado 7-4.
 
++
 ```console
 {{#include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-03/output.txt}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-4: Errores de compilación al hacer building del
-código del listado 7-3
+
 
 El mensaje de error dice que el módulo `hosting` es privado. En otras palabras,
 tenemos las rutas correctas para el módulo `hosting` y la función
@@ -110,24 +110,24 @@ privado, queremos que la función `eat_at_restaurant` en el módulo padre tenga
 acceso a la función `add_to_waitlist` en el módulo hijo, así que marcamos el
 módulo `hosting` con la palabra clave `pub`, como se muestra en el listado 7-5.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-05/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-5: Declarando el módulo `hosting` como `pub`
-para usarlo desde `eat_at_restaurant`
+
 
 Desafortunadamente, el código en el listado 7-5 aún resulta en errores de 
 compilador, como se muestra en el listado 7-6.
 
++
 ```console
 {{#include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-05/output.txt}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-6: Errores de compilación al hacer building del
-código del listado 7-5
+
 
 ¿Qué pasó? Agregar la palabra clave `pub` al frente del módulo `hosting` hace
 que el módulo sea público. Con este cambio, si podemos acceder a
@@ -146,15 +146,13 @@ como a módulos.
 Para hacer que la función `add_to_waitlist` sea pública, necesitamos agregar la
 palabra clave `pub` antes de su definición, como se muestra en el listado 7-7.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground,test_harness
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-07/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-7: Agregar la keyword `pub` a `mod hosting`
-y `fn add_to_waitlist` nos permite llamar a la función desde
-`eat_at_restaurant`
+
 
 ¡Ahora el código compilará! Para ver por qué agregar la palabra clave `pub` nos
 permite usar estas rutas en `eat_at_restaurant` con respecto a las reglas de
@@ -223,14 +221,13 @@ arregla un pedido incorrecto y lo trae personalmente al cliente. La función
 `deliver_order` definida en el módulo padre especificando la ruta a
 `deliver_order`, comenzando con `super`.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground,test_harness
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-08/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-8: Llamar a una función usando una ruta relativa
-que comienza con `super`
+
 
 La función `fix_incorrect_order` está en el módulo `back_of_house`, por lo que
 podemos usar `super` para ir al módulo padre de `back_of_house`, que en este
@@ -255,14 +252,13 @@ decide qué fruta acompaña la comida según lo que está en temporada y en stoc
 La fruta disponible cambia rápidamente, por lo que los clientes no pueden
 elegir la fruta o incluso ver qué fruta obtendrán.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-09/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-9: Un struct con algunos campos públicos y
-algunos campos privados
+
 
 Debido a que el campo `toast` es público, podemos cambiar el valor de `toast`
 en una instancia de `Breakfast` en la función `eat_at_restaurant` en el listado
@@ -282,14 +278,13 @@ Por el contrario, si hacemos un enum público, todos sus variantes son públicas
 Solo necesitamos el `pub` antes de la palabra clave `enum`, como se muestra en
 el listado 7-10.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-10/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-10: Designar un enum como público hace que todas
-sus variantes sean públicas
+
 
 Debido a que hicimos el enum `Appetizer` público, podemos usar las variantes
 `Appetizer::Soup` y `Appetizer::Salad` en `eat_at_restaurant`.
diff --git a/src/ch07-04-bringing-paths-into-scope-with-the-use-keyword.md b/src/ch07-04-bringing-paths-into-scope-with-the-use-keyword.md
index a13633155..d97151ec2 100644
--- a/src/ch07-04-bringing-paths-into-scope-with-the-use-keyword.md
+++ b/src/ch07-04-bringing-paths-into-scope-with-the-use-keyword.md
@@ -13,13 +13,13 @@ de la función `eat_at_restaurant` para que solo tengamos que especificar
 `hosting::add_to_waitlist` para llamar a la función `add_to_waitlist` en
 `eat_at_restaurant`.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground,test_harness
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-11/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-11: Introducir un módulo en el ámbito de aplicación con `use`
+
 
 Agregar `use` y una ruta en un ámbito es similar a crear un enlace simbólico
 en el sistema de archivos. Al agregar `use crate::front_of_house::hosting` en
@@ -33,14 +33,13 @@ ocurre él `use`. El Listado 7-12 mueve la función `eat_at_restaurant` a un
 nuevo módulo hijo llamado `customer`, que es entonces un ámbito diferente al de la sentencia `use`,
 por lo que el cuerpo de la función no compilará.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground,test_harness,does_not_compile,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-12/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-12: La sentencia `use` solo aplica en el
-ámbito donde se encuentra declarado
+
 
 El error del compilador muestra que el acceso directo ya no se aplica dentro del módulo del
 `customer`:
@@ -62,14 +61,13 @@ en `eat_at_restaurant`, en lugar de especificar toda la ruta
 hasta la función `add_to_waitlist` para lograr el mismo resultado, como en el
 Listado 7-13.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground,test_harness
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-13/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-13: Incorporando la función `add_to_waitlist`
-en el ámbito con `use`, que no es idiomático
+
 
 Aunque el Listado 7-11 y 7-13 logran la misma tarea, el Listado 7-11 es la
 forma idiomática de traer una función al ámbito con `use`. Traer el módulo
@@ -85,14 +83,13 @@ idiomático especificar la ruta completa. El Listado 7-14 muestra la forma
 idiomática de traer la struct `HashMap` de la biblioteca estándar al ámbito de
 un crate binario.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-14/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-14: Trayendo `HashMap` al ámbito de una
-manera idiomática
+
 
 No hay una razón fuerte detrás de este idioma: es solo la convención que ha
 surgido, y la gente se ha acostumbrado a leer y escribir código Rust de esta
@@ -103,14 +100,13 @@ al ámbito con declaraciones `use`, porque Rust no lo permite. El Listado
 7-15 muestra cómo traer dos tipos `Result` al ámbito que tienen el mismo nombre
 pero módulos padres diferentes, y cómo referirse a ellos.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-15/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-15: Incorporando dos tipos con el mismo nombre
-en el mismo ámbito requiere el uso de sus módulos principales.
+
 
 Como puedes ver, usar los módulos padres distingue los dos tipos `Result`. Sí,
 en cambio, especificamos `use std::fmt::Result` y `use std::io::Result`,
@@ -125,14 +121,13 @@ nombre local, o _alias_, para el tipo. El Listado 7-16 muestra otra forma de
 escribir el código en el Listado 7-15 renombrando uno de los dos tipos
 `Result` usando `as`.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-16/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-16: Cambiando el nombre de un tipo cuando se
-introduce en el ámbito con la keyword `as`
+
 
 En la segunda declaración `use`, elegimos el nuevo nombre `IoResult` para el
 tipo `std::io::Result`, que no entrará en conflicto con el `Result` de
@@ -151,14 +146,13 @@ disponible para que otros lo traigan a su ámbito.
 El listado 7-17 muestra el código del listado 7-11 con `use` en el módulo
 `front_of_house` cambiado a `pub use`.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground,test_harness
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-17/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-17: Hacer que un nombre esté disponible para que
-lo use cualquier código desde un nuevo ámbito con `pub use`
+
 
 Antes de este cambio, el código externo tendría que llamar a la función
 `add_to_waitlist` usando la ruta
@@ -192,12 +186,14 @@ paquete externo llamado `rand` para obtener números aleatorios. Para usar
 * ch14-03-cargo-workspaces.md
 -->
 
-Filename: Cargo.toml
+ 
 ```toml
 {{#include ../listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-02/Cargo.toml:9:}}
 ```
 
+
+
 Añadir `rand` como dependencia en _Cargo.toml_ le dice a Cargo que descargue el
 paquete `rand` y cualquier dependencia de [crates.io](https://crates.io/) y
 haga que `rand` esté disponible para nuestro proyecto.
@@ -237,23 +233,25 @@ enumerar cada elemento en su propia línea puede ocupar mucho espacio vertical e
 nuestros archivos. Por ejemplo, estas dos declaraciones `use` que teníamos en
 el juego de adivinanzas en el Listado 2-4 traen items de `std` al ámbito:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/no-listing-01-use-std-unnested/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
+
+
 En su lugar, podemos utilizar rutas anidadas para incluir los mismos elementos en una sola línea.
 Hacemos esto especificando la parte común de la ruta, seguida de
 dos puntos y luego entre llaves los elementos, como se muestra en el Listado 7-18.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-18/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-18: Especificación de una ruta anidada para incluir en el ámbito varios elementos con el mismo prefijo
+
 
 En programas más grandes, traer muchos items al ámbito desde el mismo crate o
 módulo usando rutas anidadas puede reducir la cantidad de declaraciones `use`
@@ -264,26 +262,25 @@ combinamos dos sentencias `use` que comparten una sub-ruta. Por ejemplo, el List
 7-19 muestra dos sentencias use: una que trae `std::io` al ámbito y
 otra que trae `std::io::Write` al ámbito.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-19/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-19: Dos sentencias `use` donde una es una sub-ruta de la otra
+
 
 La parte común de estas dos rutas es `std::io`, así que podemos usar una ruta
 anidada para traer ambos al ámbito en una línea, como se muestra en el Listado
 7-20.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-20/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-20: Combinando las rutas del listado 7-19 en
-una sentencia `use`
+
 
 Esta línea trae `std::io` y `std::io::Write` al ámbito.
 
diff --git a/src/ch07-05-separating-modules-into-different-files.md b/src/ch07-05-separating-modules-into-different-files.md
index 296d3d001..e214b465b 100644
--- a/src/ch07-05-separating-modules-into-different-files.md
+++ b/src/ch07-05-separating-modules-into-different-files.md
@@ -7,74 +7,76 @@ fácil de navegar.
 Por ejemplo, comencemos desde el código en el listado 7-17 que tenía múltiples
 módulos de restaurante. Extraeremos los módulos en archivos en lugar de tener
 todos los módulos definidos en el archivo raíz del crate. En este caso, el
-archivo raíz del crate es _src/lib.rs_, pero este procedimiento también
-funciona con crates binarios cuyo archivo raíz del crate es _src/main.rs_.
+archivo raíz del crate es *src/lib.rs*, pero este procedimiento también
+funciona con crates binarios cuyo archivo raíz del crate es *src/main.rs*.
 
 Primero, extraeremos el módulo `front_of_house` a su propio archivo. Elimine el
 código dentro de las llaves para el módulo `front_of_house`, dejando solo la
-declaración `mod front_of_house;`, de modo que _src/lib.rs_ contenga el código
+declaración `mod front_of_house;`, de modo que *src/lib.rs* contenga el código
 que se muestra en el listado 7-21. Ten en cuenta que esto no compilará hasta
-que creemos el archivo _src/front_of_house.rs_ en el listado 7-22.
+que creemos el archivo *src/front_of_house.rs* en el listado 7-22.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-21-and-22/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-21: Declarando el módulo `front_of_house` cuyo
-cuerpo estará en _src/front_of_house.rs_
+
 
 Luego, coloca el código que estaba entre las llaves en un nuevo archivo
-llamado _src/front_of_house.rs_, como se muestra en el Listado 7-22. El
-compilador sabe que debe buscar en este archivo porque se encontró con la declaración
-del módulo en la raíz del crate con el nombre `front_of_house`.
+llamado *src/front_of_house.rs*, como se muestra en el Listado 7-22. El
+compilador sabe que debe buscar en este archivo porque se encontró con la 
+declaración del módulo en la raíz del crate con el nombre `front_of_house`.
 
-Filename: src/front_of_house.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-21-and-22/src/front_of_house.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 7-22: Definiciones dentro del módulo `front_of_house`
-en _src/front_of_house.rs_
+
 
 Ten en cuenta que solo necesitas cargar un archivo usando una declaración `mod`
-_una vez_ en tu árbol de módulos. Una vez que el compilador sabe que el archivo
+*una vez* en tu árbol de módulos. Una vez que el compilador sabe que el archivo
 es parte del proyecto (y sabe en qué parte del árbol de módulos reside el código
 debido a dónde has puesto la declaración `mod`), otros archivos en tu proyecto
-deben hacer referencia al código del archivo cargado usando una ruta que indique donde se
-declaró, como se cubre en la sección [“Rutas para referirse a un elemento en el
-árbol de módulos”][paths]. En otras palabras, `mod` no es una
-operación de “incluir” que puede haber visto en otros lenguajes de
-programación.
+deben hacer referencia al código del archivo cargado usando una ruta que indique 
+donde se declaró, como se cubre en la sección [“Rutas para referirse a un 
+elemento en el árbol de módulos”][paths]. En otras palabras, 
+`mod` no es una operación de “incluir” que puede haber visto en otros lenguajes 
+de programación.
 
 Luego, extraeremos el módulo `hosting` a su propio archivo. El proceso es un
 poco diferente porque `hosting` es un módulo secundario de `front_of_house`, no
 del módulo raíz. Colocaremos el archivo para `hosting` en un nuevo directorio
 que se llamará por sus antepasados en el árbol de módulos, en este caso
-_src/front_of_house/_.
+*src/front_of_house*.
 
-Para comenzar a mover `hosting`, cambiamos _src/front_of_house.rs_ para
+Para comenzar a mover `hosting`, cambiamos *src/front_of_house.rs* para
 contener solo la declaración del módulo `hosting`:
 
-Filename: src/front_of_house.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/no-listing-02-extracting-hosting/src/front_of_house.rs}}
 ```
 
-Luego creamos un directorio _src/front_of_house_ y un archivo _hosting.rs_ para
+
+
+Luego creamos un directorio *src/front_of_house* y un archivo *hosting.rs* para
 contener las definiciones realizadas en el módulo `hosting`:
 
-Filename: src/front_of_house/hosting.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/no-listing-02-extracting-hosting/src/front_of_house/hosting.rs}}
 ```
 
-Sí, en cambio, colocamos _hosting.rs_ en el directorio _src_, el compilador
-esperaría que el código de _hosting.rs_ estuviera en un módulo `hosting`
+
+
+Sí, en cambio, colocamos *hosting.rs* en el directorio *src*, el compilador
+esperaría que el código de *hosting.rs* estuviera en un módulo `hosting`
 declarado en la raíz del crate, y no declarado como un hijo del módulo
 `front_of_house`. Las reglas del compilador sobre qué archivos comprobar
 para cada código de módulo hacen que los directorios y archivos se ajusten más
@@ -87,22 +89,22 @@ al árbol de módulos.
 > archivo. Para un módulo llamado `front_of_house` declarado en la raíz del
 > crate, el compilador buscará el código del módulo en:
 >
-> - _src/front_of_house.rs_ (lo que cubrimos)
-> - _src/front_of_house/mod.rs_ (estilo antiguo, ruta aún soportada)
+> - *src/front_of_house.rs* (lo que cubrimos)
+> - *src/front_of_house/mod.rs* (estilo antiguo, ruta aún soportada)
 >
 > Para un módulo llamado `hosting` que es un submódulo de `front_of_house`, el
 > compilador buscará el código del módulo en:
 >
-> - _src/front_of_house/hosting.rs_ (lo que cubrimos)
-> - _src/front_of_house/hosting/mod.rs_ (estilo antiguo, ruta aún soportada)
+> - *src/front_of_house/hosting.rs* (lo que cubrimos)
+> - *src/front_of_house/hosting/mod.rs* (estilo antiguo, ruta aún soportada)
 >
 > Si usas ambos estilos para el mismo módulo, obtendrás un error del
 > compilador. Usar una mezcla de ambos estilos para diferentes módulos en el
 > mismo proyecto está permitido, pero podría ser confuso para las personas que
 > navegan por tu proyecto.
 >
-> La principal desventaja del estilo que usa archivos llamados _mod.rs_ es que
-> tu proyecto puede terminar con muchos archivos llamados _mod.rs_, lo que puede
+> La principal desventaja del estilo que usa archivos llamados *mod.rs* es que
+> tu proyecto puede terminar con muchos archivos llamados *mod.rs*, lo que puede
 > ser confuso cuando los tienes abiertos en tu editor al mismo tiempo.
 
 Hemos movido el código de cada módulo a un archivo separado, y el árbol de
@@ -112,7 +114,7 @@ archivos diferentes. Esta técnica le permite mover módulos a nuevos archivos a
 medida que crecen en tamaño.
 
 Ten en cuenta que la declaración `pub use crate::front_of_house::hosting` en
-_src/lib.rs_ tampoco ha cambiado, ni `use` tiene ningún impacto en qué archivos
+*src/lib.rs* tampoco ha cambiado, ni `use` tiene ningún impacto en qué archivos
 se compilan como parte del crate. La palabra clave `mod` declara módulos, y
 Rust busca en un archivo con el mismo nombre que el módulo para el código que
 va en ese módulo.
diff --git a/src/ch08-01-vectors.md b/src/ch08-01-vectors.md
index 5a9f42dbc..7c0621556 100644
--- a/src/ch08-01-vectors.md
+++ b/src/ch08-01-vectors.md
@@ -12,12 +12,13 @@ los precios de los artículos en un carrito de compras.
 Para crear un nuevo vector vacío, llamamos a la función `Vec::new`, como se
 muestra en el listado 8-1.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-01/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-1: Creando un nuevo vector vacío para mantener
-valores de tipo `i32`
+
 
 Ten en cuenta que agregamos una anotación de tipo aquí. Como no estamos
 insertando ningún valor en este vector, Rust no sabe qué tipo de elementos
@@ -37,12 +38,13 @@ crea un nuevo `Vec` que contiene los valores `1`, `2` y `3`. El tipo
 entero es `i32` porque ese es el tipo entero predeterminado, como discutimos
 en la sección ["Tipos de datos"][data-types] del Capítulo 3.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-02/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-2: Creando un nuevo vector que contiene
-valores
+
 
 Debido a que hemos dado valores iniciales `i32`, Rust puede inferir que el tipo
 de `v` es `Vec`, y la anotación de tipo no es necesaria. A continuación,
@@ -53,12 +55,13 @@ veremos cómo modificar un vector.
 Para crear un vector y luego agregar elementos a él, podemos usar el método
 `push`, como se muestra en el listado 8-3.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-03/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-3: Usando el método `push` para añadir valores
-a un vector
+
 
 Como con cualquier variable, si queremos poder cambiar su valor, necesitamos
 hacerlo mutable usando la palabra clave `mut`, como se discutió en el Capítulo
@@ -75,12 +78,13 @@ obtener una mayor claridad.
 En el listado 8-4 se muestran ambos métodos de acceso a un valor en un vector,
 con sintaxis de indexación y el método `get`.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-04/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-4: Usando la sintaxis de indexación o el método
-`get` accediendo a un objeto en un vector
+
 
 Ten en cuenta algunos detalles aquí. Usamos el valor de índice `2` para obtener
 el tercer elemento porque los vectores se indexan por número, comenzando en
@@ -95,12 +99,13 @@ veamos qué sucede cuando tenemos un vector de cinco elementos y luego intentamo
 acceder a un elemento en el índice 100 con cada técnica, como se muestra en el
 listado 8-5.
 
++
 ```rust,should_panic,panics
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-05/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-5: Intentando acceder al elemento en el índice
-100 en un vector que contiene 5 elementos
+
 
 Cuando ejecutamos este código, el primer método `[]` causará que el programa
 falle porque intenta acceder a un elemento que no existe. Este método es mejor
@@ -127,12 +132,13 @@ listado 8-6, donde tenemos una referencia inmutable al primer elemento en un
 vector e intentamos agregar un elemento al final. Este programa no funcionará si
 también intentamos referirnos a ese elemento más adelante en la función.
 
++
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-06/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-6: Intentando agregar un elemento a un vector
-mientras se mantiene una referencia a un elemento
+
 
 Al compilar este código se producirá este error:
 
@@ -161,23 +167,25 @@ los elementos, en lugar de usar índices para acceder a uno a la vez. El listado
 8-7 muestra cómo usar un bucle `for` para obtener referencias inmutables a cada
 elemento en un vector de valores `i32` e imprimirlos.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-07/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-7: Imprimiendo cada elemento en un vector
-iterando sobre los elementos usando un ciclo `for`
+
 
 También podemos iterar sobre referencias mutables a cada elemento en un vector
 mutable, lo que nos permite cambiar los valores en un vector en el lugar. El
 código en el listado 8-8 agregará `50` a cada elemento en un vector.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-08/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-8: Iterando sobre referencias mutables a
-elementos en un vector
+
 
 Para cambiar el valor al que se refiere la referencia mutable, tenemos que usar
 el operador de desreferencia `*` para llegar al valor en `i` antes de poder
@@ -209,12 +217,13 @@ el del `enum`. Luego podemos crear un vector para contener ese `enum` y, por lo
 tanto, en última instancia, contener diferentes tipos. Hemos demostrado esto en
 el listado 8-9.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-09/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-9: Definiendo un `enum` para almacenar valores
-de diferentes tipos en un vector
+
 
 Rust necesita saber qué tipos habrá en el vector en tiempo de compilación para
 saber exactamente cuánta memoria en el montón se necesitará para almacenar cada
@@ -228,7 +237,7 @@ que se maneje cada caso posible, como se discutió en el Capítulo 6.
 Si tu no sabes el conjunto exhaustivo de tipos que un programa obtendrá en
 tiempo de ejecución para almacenar en un vector, la técnica de `enum` no
 funcionará. En su lugar, puede usar un objeto de rasgo, que cubriremos en el
-Capítulo 17.
+Capítulo 18.
 
 Ahora que hemos discutido algunas de las formas más comunes de usar vectores,
 asegúrese de revisar [la documentación de la API][vec-api] para
@@ -241,12 +250,13 @@ estándar. Por ejemplo, además de `push`, un método `pop` elimina y devuelve e
 Como cualquier otro `struct`, un vector se libera cuando sale del ámbito, como
 se anota en el listado 8-10.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-10/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-10: Mostrando dónde se colocan el vector y sus
-elementos
+
 
 Cuando se libera el vector, también se libera todo su contenido, lo que
 significa que se limpiarán los enteros que contiene. El borrow checker garantiza
diff --git a/src/ch08-02-strings.md b/src/ch08-02-strings.md
index fbf60e579..59c7c1ef1 100644
--- a/src/ch08-02-strings.md
+++ b/src/ch08-02-strings.md
@@ -42,11 +42,13 @@ y capacidades adicionales. Un ejemplo de una función que funciona de la misma
 manera con `Vec` y `String` es la función `new` para crear una instancia,
 que se muestra en el listado 8-11.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-11/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-11: Creando un nuevo y vacío `String`
+
 
 Esta línea crea un nuevo `String` vacío llamado `s`, el cual podemos luego cargar
 con datos. A menudo, tendremos algunos datos iniciales que queremos comenzar
@@ -54,12 +56,13 @@ en el string. Para eso, usamos el método `to_string`, que está disponible en
 cualquier tipo que implemente el trait `Display`, como lo hacen los String
 Literals. El listado 8-12 muestra dos ejemplos.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-12/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-12: Usando el método `to_string` para crear un
-`String` a partir de un string literal
+
 
 Este código crea un string que contiene `initial contents`.
 
@@ -67,12 +70,13 @@ Podemos también usar la función `String::from` para crear un `String` a partir
 de un string literal. El código en el listado 8-13 es equivalente al código del
 listado 8-12 que usa `to_string`.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-13/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-13: Usando la función `String::from` para crear
-un `String` a partir de un string literal
+
 
 Debido a que los strings se usan para muchas cosas, podemos usar muchas APIs
 genéricas diferentes para strings, lo que nos proporciona muchas opciones.
@@ -84,12 +88,13 @@ Recuerda que los strings son UTF-8 codificados, por lo que podemos incluir
 cualquier dato codificado correctamente en ellos, Como se muestra en el listado
 8-14.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-14/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-14: Almacenamiento de saludos en diferentes
-idiomas en strings
+
 
 Todos estos strings son valores válidos de `String`.
 
@@ -105,24 +110,26 @@ convenientemente el operador `+` o el macro `format!` para concatenar valores de
 Podemos hacer crecer un `String` usando el método `push_str` para agregar un
 string slice, como se muestra en el listado 8-15.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-15/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-15: Agregando un string slice a un `String`
-usando el método `push_str`
+
 
 Después de estas dos líneas, `s` contendrá `foobar`. El método `push_str` toma
 un string slice porque no necesariamente queremos tomar posesión del parámetro.
 Por ejemplo, en el código del listado 8-16, queremos poder usar `s2` después de
 agregar su contenido a `s1`.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-16/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-16: Uso de un string slice después de agregar
-su contenido a un `String`
+
 
 Si el método `push_str` tomara posesión de `s2`, no podríamos imprimir su valor
 en la última línea. ¡Sin embargo, este código funciona como esperamos!
@@ -130,12 +137,13 @@ en la última línea. ¡Sin embargo, este código funciona como esperamos!
 El método `push` toma un solo carácter como parámetro y lo agrega al `String`.
 El listado 8-17 agrega la letra `l` a un `String` usando el método `push`.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-17/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-17: Agregando un carácter a un valor `String`
-usando `push`
+
 
 Como resultado, `s` contendrá `lol`.
 
@@ -144,12 +152,13 @@ Como resultado, `s` contendrá `lol`.
 A menudo, querrás combinar dos cadenas existentes. Una forma de hacerlo es 
 usar el operador `+`, como se muestra en el Listado 8-18.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-18/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-18: Usando el operador `+` para combinar dos
-valores `String` en un nuevo valor `String`
+
 
 El string `s3` contendrá `Hello, world!`. La razón por la que `s1` ya no es
 válido después de la adición, y la razón por la que usamos una referencia a
@@ -219,12 +228,13 @@ embargo, si intentas acceder a partes de un `String` usando la sintaxis de
 indexación en Rust, obtendrás un error. Considera el código inválido en el
 listado 8-19.
 
++
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-19/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-19: Intentando usar la sintaxis de indexación con
-un String
+
 
 Este código dará como resultado el siguiente error:
 
@@ -275,7 +285,7 @@ por sí solo. Devolver `208` probablemente no sea lo que un usuario querría si
 pidieran la primera letra de esta cadena; sin embargo, esos son los únicos
 datos que Rust tiene en el índice de bytes 0. Los usuarios generalmente no
 quieren que se devuelva el valor de byte, incluso si la cadena contiene solo
-letras latinas: si `&"hello"[0]` fuera un código válido que devolviera el valor
+letras latinas: si `&"hi"[0]` fuera un código válido que devolviera el valor
 de byte, devolvería `104`, no `h`.
 
 La respuesta, entonces, es que para evitar devolver un valor inesperado y
diff --git a/src/ch08-03-hash-maps.md b/src/ch08-03-hash-maps.md
index f6ca373e3..c632f91df 100644
--- a/src/ch08-03-hash-maps.md
+++ b/src/ch08-03-hash-maps.md
@@ -26,12 +26,13 @@ Una forma de crear un hash map vacío es usar `new` y agregar elementos con
 puntuaciones de dos equipos cuyos nombres son _Blue_ y _Yellow_. El equipo
 Blue comienza con 10 puntos y el equipo Yellow comienza con 50.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-20/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-20: Creando un nuevo hash map e insertando
-algunas claves y valores
+
 
 Ten en cuenta que es importante importar primero el módulo `HashMap` de la
 biblioteca estándar de colecciones. De nuestras tres colecciones comunes,
@@ -50,12 +51,13 @@ tipo entre sí y todos los valores deben tener el mismo tipo.
 Podemos obtener un valor de un hash map proporcionando su clave al método `get`
 como se muestra en el listado 8-21.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-21/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-21: Acceso al puntaje para el equipo Blue
-almacenado en el hash map
+
 
 Aquí, `score` tendrá el valor que está asociado con el equipo Blue, y el
 resultado será `10`. El método `get` devuelve un `Option<&V>`; si no hay un
@@ -85,12 +87,13 @@ copian en el hash map. Para valores de propiedad como `String`, los valores se
 moverán y el hash map será el propietario de esos valores, como se demuestra
 en el listado 8-22.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-22/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-22: Mostrando que claves y valores son propiedad
-del hash map una vez que se insertan
+
 
 No podemos usar `field_name` y `field_value` después de que se hayan movido al
 hash map con la llamada a `insert`.
@@ -124,12 +127,13 @@ Aunque el código en el listado 8-23 llama a `insert` dos veces, el hash map
 solo contendrá un par clave-valor porque estamos insertando el valor para la clave
 del equipo Blue dos veces.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-23/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-23: Reemplazando un valor almacenado con una
-clave en particular
+
 
 Este código imprimirá `{"Blue": 25}`. El valor original de `10` ha sido
 sobrescrito.
@@ -152,12 +156,13 @@ que queremos verificar si la clave para el equipo Yellow tiene un valor
 asociado. Si no lo tiene, queremos insertar el valor `50`, y lo mismo para el
 equipo Blue. Usando la API `entry`, el código se ve como el listado 8-24.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-24/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-24: Usando el método `entry` para insertar solo
-si la clave aún no tiene un valor
+
 
 El método `or_insert` en `Entry` está definido para devolver una referencia
 mutable al valor correspondiente a la clave `Entry` si esa clave existe, y si no,
@@ -180,12 +185,13 @@ Usamos un hash map con las palabras como claves y aumentamos el valor para
 mantener un recuento de cuántas veces hemos visto esa palabra. Si es la primera
 vez que vemos una palabra, primero insertaremos el valor `0`.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-25/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 8-25: Contando ocurrencias de palabras usando un
-hash map que almacena palabras y cuenta
+
 
 Este código imprimirá `{"world": 2, "hello": 1, "wonderful": 1}`. Es posible
 que veas los mismos pares clave-valor en un orden diferente: recuerda la sección
diff --git a/src/ch09-01-unrecoverable-errors-with-panic.md b/src/ch09-01-unrecoverable-errors-with-panic.md
index 227c5d3df..24de35f83 100644
--- a/src/ch09-01-unrecoverable-errors-with-panic.md
+++ b/src/ch09-01-unrecoverable-errors-with-panic.md
@@ -32,12 +32,14 @@ facilitar el seguimiento de la fuente del panic.
 
 Intentemos llamar un `panic!` en un programa simple:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,should_panic,panics
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-01-panic/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
+
+
 Cuando ejecutes el programa, verás algo como esto:
 
 ```console
@@ -59,21 +61,27 @@ de las funciones de las que provino la llamada a `panic!` para determinar la
 parte de nuestro código que está causando el problema. Discutiremos el backtrace
 en más detalle a continuación.
 
+
+
+
 ### Usando el backtrace de `panic!`
 
-Veamos otro ejemplo de cómo es cuando una llamada a `panic!` proviene de una
-biblioteca debido a un error en nuestro código en lugar de que nuestro código
-llame directamente a la macro. El listado 9-1 tiene algún código que intenta
-acceder a un índice en un vector más allá del rango de índices válidos.
+Podemos usar el rastreo de llamadas (*backtrace*) de las funciones desde donde 
+se originó la llamada a `panic!` para identificar la parte de nuestro código que 
+está causando el problema. Para entender cómo usar un *backtrace* de `panic!`, 
+veamos otro ejemplo y analicemos qué ocurre cuando una llamada a `panic!` 
+proviene de una biblioteca debido a un error en nuestro código, en lugar de que 
+sea nuestro código llamando directamente a la macro. El Listado 9-1 contiene 
+código que intenta acceder a un índice en un vector fuera del rango de índices 
+válidos.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,should_panic,panics
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-01/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 9-1: Intentando acceder a un elemento más allá del
-fin de un vector, que provocará una llamada a `panic!`
+
 
 Aquí, estamos intentando acceder al elemento 100 de nuestro vector (que está en
 el índice 99 porque el indexado comienza en cero), pero el vector solo tiene 3
@@ -98,7 +106,9 @@ continuar. Intentémoslo y veamos:
 ```
 
 Este error apunta a la línea 4 de nuestro `main.rs` donde intentamos acceder al
-índice 99. La siguiente línea de nota nos dice que podemos establecer la
+índice 99 de el vector `v`. 
+
+La siguiente línea de nota nos dice que podemos establecer la
 variable de entorno `RUST_BACKTRACE` para obtener el backtrace de exactamente lo
 que sucedió para causar el error. El _Backtrace_ es una lista de todas las
 funciones que se han llamado para llegar a este punto. El backtrace en Rust
@@ -109,7 +119,7 @@ el código que su código ha llamado; las líneas a continuación son el código
 llamó a su código. Estas líneas antes y después pueden incluir código de Rust
 core, código de biblioteca estándar o crates que estés usando. Intentemos
 obtener el backtrace estableciendo la variable de entorno `RUST_BACKTRACE` a
-cualquier valor excepto 0. El listado 9-2 muestra una salida similar a la que
+cualquier valor excepto `0`. El listado 9-2 muestra una salida similar a la que
 verás.
 
 
 
++
 ```console
 $ export RUST_BACKTRACE=1; cargo run
 thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:4:6:
 index out of bounds: the len is 3 but the index is 99
 stack backtrace:
    0: rust_begin_unwind
-             at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/std/src/panicking.rs:645:5
+             at /rustc/f6e511eec7342f59a25f7c0534f1dbea00d01b14/library/std/src/panicking.rs:662:5
    1: core::panicking::panic_fmt
-             at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/core/src/panicking.rs:72:14
+             at /rustc/f6e511eec7342f59a25f7c0534f1dbea00d01b14/library/core/src/panicking.rs:74:14
    2: core::panicking::panic_bounds_check
-             at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/core/src/panicking.rs:208:5
+             at /rustc/f6e511eec7342f59a25f7c0534f1dbea00d01b14/library/core/src/panicking.rs:276:5
    3: >::index
-             at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/core/src/slice/index.rs:255:10
+             at /rustc/f6e511eec7342f59a25f7c0534f1dbea00d01b14/library/core/src/slice/index.rs:302:10
    4: core::slice::index:: for [T]>::index
-             at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/core/src/slice/index.rs:18:9
+             at /rustc/f6e511eec7342f59a25f7c0534f1dbea00d01b14/library/core/src/slice/index.rs:16:9
    5:  as core::ops::index::Index>::index
-             at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/alloc/src/vec/mod.rs:2770:9
+             at /rustc/f6e511eec7342f59a25f7c0534f1dbea00d01b14/library/alloc/src/vec/mod.rs:2920:9
    6: panic::main
              at ./src/main.rs:4:6
    7: core::ops::function::FnOnce::call_once
-             at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/core/src/ops/function.rs:250:5
+             at /rustc/f6e511eec7342f59a25f7c0534f1dbea00d01b14/library/core/src/ops/function.rs:250:5
 note: Some details are omitted, run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=full` for a verbose backtrace.
 ```
 
-Listado 9-2: El backtrace generado por una llamada a
-`panic!` se muestra cuando la variable de entorno `RUST_BACKTRACE` está
-configurada
+
 
 ¡Eso es mucho resultado! La salida exacta que vea puede ser diferente según su
 sistema operativo y la versión de Rust. Para obtener el backtrace con esta
diff --git a/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md b/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md
index 18ad5e2b3..22a7ac5ec 100644
--- a/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md
+++ b/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md
@@ -30,13 +30,13 @@ queremos devolver pueden diferir.
 Llamemos a una función que devuelve un valor `Result` porque la función podría
 fallar. En el listado 9-3 intentamos abrir un archivo.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-03/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 9-3: Abriendo un archivo
+
 
 El tipo de retorno de `File::open` es un `Result`. El parámetro genérico
 `T` ha sido llenado por la implementación de `File::open` con el tipo del valor
@@ -61,14 +61,13 @@ dependiendo del valor que `File::open` devuelve. El listado 9-4 muestra una
 forma de manejar él `Result` usando una herramienta básica, la expresión
 `match` que discutimos en el Capítulo 6.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,should_panic
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-04/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 9-4: Usando una expresión `match` para manejar las
-variantes `Result` que podrían devolverse
+
 
 Ten en cuenta que, al igual que el enum `Option`, el enum `Result` y sus
 variantes se han traído al ámbito por el [prelude][prelude], por lo que no necesitamos
@@ -104,7 +103,7 @@ archivo, todavía queremos que el código dispare el `panic!` de la misma manera
 en el listado 9-4. Para esto agregamos una expresión `match` interna, que se
 muestra en el listado 9-5.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 
@@ -113,8 +112,7 @@ tests to fail lol -->
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-05/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 9-5: Manejando diferentes tipos de errores de
-diferentes formas
+
 
 El tipo de valor que `File::open` devuelve dentro de la variante `Err` es
 `io::Error`, que es una estructura proporcionada por la biblioteca estándar.
@@ -135,7 +133,7 @@ mensaje de error diferente. La segunda opción del `match` externo permanece
 igual, por lo que el programa se bloquea en cualquier error además del error de
 archivo faltante.
 
-> ### Alternativas a usar `match` con `Result`
+> #### Alternativas a usar `match` con `Result`
 >
 > ¡Eso es mucho `match`! La expresión `match` es útil, pero también es bastante
 > verbosa. En el Capítulo 13 aprenderás sobre los closures, que se usan con
@@ -170,7 +168,7 @@ archivo faltante.
 > la documentación de la biblioteca estándar. Muchos más de estos métodos pueden
 > limpiar enormes expresiones `match` anidadas cuando se trata de errores.
 
-### Atajos para `panic` en caso de error: `unwrap` y `expect`
+#### Atajos para `panic` en caso de error: `unwrap` y `expect`
 
 Usando `match` funciona bastante bien, pero puede ser un poco verboso y no
 siempre comunica bien la intención. El tipo `Result` tiene muchos métodos
@@ -181,12 +179,14 @@ auxiliares definidos en él para hacer varias tareas más específicas. El méto
 `Err`, `unwrap` llamará a la macro `panic!` por nosotros. Aquí hay un ejemplo de
 `unwrap` en acción:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,should_panic
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-04-unwrap/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
+
+
 Si ejecutamos este código sin un archivo _hello.txt_, veremos un mensaje de
 error de la llamada `panic!` que el método `unwrap` hace:
 
@@ -206,12 +206,14 @@ Del mismo modo, el método `expect` nos permite elegir el mensaje de error de
 de error puede transmitir tu intención y facilitar el seguimiento de la fuente
 de un pánico. La sintaxis de `expect` se ve así:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,should_panic
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-05-expect/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
+
+
 Nosotros usamos `expect` de la misma manera que `unwrap`: para devolver el
 manejo de archivo o llamar a la macro `panic!`. El mensaje de error utilizado
 por `expect` en su llamada a `panic!` será el parámetro que pasamos a `expect`,
@@ -247,7 +249,7 @@ Por ejemplo, El listado 9-6 muestra una función que lee un nombre de usuario de
 un archivo. Si el archivo no existe o no se puede leer, esta función devolverá
 esos errores al código que llamó a la función.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 
 {{#include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-06/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 9-6: Una función que devuelve errores al código
-llamado usando `match`
+
 
 Esta función se puede escribir de una manera mucho más corta, pero vamos a
 empezar por hacer mucho de ella manualmente para explorar el manejo de errores;
@@ -269,7 +270,7 @@ ha rellenado con el tipo concreto `String`, y el tipo genérico `E` se ha
 rellenado con el tipo concreto `io::Error`.
 
 Si esta función tiene éxito sin ningún problema, el código que llama a esta
-función recibirá un valor `Ok` que contiene una `String` - el nombre de usuario
+función recibirá un valor `Ok` que contiene una `String` - el `username`
 que esta función leyó del archivo. Si esta función encuentra algún problema, el
 código que llama recibirá un valor `Err` que contiene una instancia de
 `io::Error` que contiene más información sobre cuáles fueron los problemas.
@@ -320,7 +321,7 @@ El listado 9-7 muestra una implementación de `read_username_from_file` que tien
 la misma funcionalidad que en el Listado 9-6, pero esta implementación utiliza
 el operador `?`.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 
 {{#include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-07/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 9-7: Una función que devuelve errores al código
-llamado usando el operador `?`
+
 
 El `?` colocado después de un valor `Result` se define para funcionar de casi
 la misma manera que las expresiones `match` que definimos para manejar los
@@ -370,7 +370,7 @@ implementación más simple. Incluso podríamos acortar aún más este código
 encadenando llamadas de método inmediatamente después del `?`, como se muestra
 en el Listado 9-8.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 
 {{#include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-08/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 9-8: Método de encadenamiento
-llamado después del operador `?`
+
 
 Hemos movido la creación del nuevo `String` en `username` al principio de la
 función; esa parte no ha cambiado. En lugar de crear una variable
@@ -396,7 +395,7 @@ y más ergonómica de escribirla.
 El listado 9-9 muestra una forma de hacer esto aún más conciso usando
 `fs::read_to_string`.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 
 {{#include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-09/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 9-9: Usando `fs::read_to_string` en lugar de
-abrir y luego leer el archivo
+
 
 Leer un archivo en un `String` es una operación bastante común, por lo que la
 biblioteca estándar proporciona la conveniente función `fs::read_to_string`
@@ -430,14 +428,13 @@ En el listado 9-10, veamos el error que obtendremos si usamos el operador `?`
 en una función `main` con un tipo de retorno incompatible con el tipo de valor
 que usamos `?`:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-10/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 9-10: Intentando usar el `?` en la función `main`
-que devuelve `()` no se compilará
+
 
 Este código abre un archivo, que puede fallar. El operador `?` sigue el valor
 `Result` devuelto por `File::open`, pero esta función `main` tiene el tipo de
@@ -454,7 +451,7 @@ devuelve `Result` o `Option` o en cualquier otro tipo que implemente
 
 Para corregir el error, tienes dos opciones. Una opción es cambiar el tipo de
 retorno de tu función para que sea compatible con el valor que estás usando el
-operador `?` mientras no tengas restricciones que lo impidan. La otra técnica
+operador `?` mientras no tengas restricciones que lo impidan. La otra opción
 es usar un `match` o uno de los métodos `Result` para manejar el
 `Result` de la manera que sea apropiada.
 
@@ -468,12 +465,13 @@ el `None` se devolverá temprano desde la función en ese punto. Si el valor es
 función continúa. El listado 9-11 tiene un ejemplo de una función que encuentra
 el último carácter de la primera línea en el texto dado:
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-11/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 9-11: Using the `?` operator on an `Option`
-value
+
 
 Esta función devuelve `Option` porque es posible que haya un carácter
 allí, pero también es posible que no lo haya. Este código toma el argumento de
@@ -514,16 +512,17 @@ tiene el código del listado 9-10, pero hemos cambiado el tipo de retorno de
 `main` para que sea `Result<(), Box>` y hemos agregado un valor de
 retorno `Ok(())` al final. Este código ahora se compilará:
 
++
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-12/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado∂ 9-12: Cambiando `main` devuelve `Result<(), E>`
-permitiendo el uso del operador `?` en valores `Result`
+
 
 El `Box` tipo es un _trait object_, que hablaremos en la sección
 [“Usando Trait Objects que permiten valores de diferentes
-tipos”][trait-objects] en el Capítulo 17. Por ahora, puedes leer
+tipos”][trait-objects] en el Capítulo 18. Por ahora, puedes leer
 `Box` para significar “cualquier tipo de error”. Usar `?` en un
 valor `Result` en una función `main` con el tipo de error `Box` está
 permitido, porque permite que cualquier valor `Err` se devuelva temprano. A
@@ -551,5 +550,5 @@ Ahora que hemos discutido los detalles de llamar a `panic!` o devolver
 
 [handle_failure]: ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html#manejando-el-posible-fallo-con-result
 [prelude]: ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html#prelude-meaning
-[trait-objects]: ch17-02-trait-objects.html#usando-trait-objects-que-permiten-valores-de-diferentes-tipos
+[trait-objects]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html#usando-trait-objects-que-permiten-valores-de-diferentes-tipos
 [termination]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/process/trait.Termination.html
diff --git a/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md b/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md
index dc2925458..e0c78c81f 100644
--- a/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md
+++ b/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md
@@ -84,7 +84,7 @@ faltantes a tu código, más uno o más de los siguientes:
 - No hay una buena manera de codificar esta información en los tipos que
   usas. Trabajaremos a través de un ejemplo de lo que queremos decir en la
   sección [“Codificación de estados y comportamientos como tipos”][encoding]
-   del Capítulo 17.
+   del Capítulo 18.
 
 Si alguien llama a tu código y pasa valores que no tienen sentido, es mejor
 devolver un error si puedes para que el usuario de la biblioteca pueda decidir
@@ -153,10 +153,14 @@ Una forma de hacer esto sería analizar la suposición como un `i32` en lugar de
 solo un `u32` para permitir números potencialmente negativos, y luego agregar
 una verificación de que el número esté en el rango, de esta manera:
 
++
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-09-guess-out-of-range/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
+
+
 La expresión `if` verifica si nuestro valor está fuera del rango, le dice al
 usuario sobre el problema y llama a `continue` para iniciar la siguiente
 iteración del ciclo y pedir otra suposición. Después de la expresión `if`,
@@ -176,17 +180,13 @@ confianza. El Listado 9-13 muestra una forma de definir un tipo `Guess` que
 solo creará una instancia de `Guess` si la función `new` recibe un valor entre
 1 y 100.
 
-
+ 
 ```rust
-{{#include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 9-13: Un tipo `Guess` que solo continuará con
-valores entre 1 y 100
+
 
 Primero, definimos un struct llamado `Guess` que tiene un campo llamado `value`
 que contiene un `i32`. Aquí es donde se almacenará el número.
@@ -238,4 +238,4 @@ Ahora que has visto formas útiles en que la biblioteca estándar usa generics
 con los enums `Option` y `Result`, hablaremos sobre cómo funcionan los
 generics y cómo puedes usarlos en tu código.
 
-[encoding]: ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html#codificando-estados-y-comportamiento-como-tipos
+[encoding]: ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.html#codificando-estados-y-comportamiento-como-tipos
diff --git a/src/ch10-00-generics.md b/src/ch10-00-generics.md
index d0279cdd7..5471cc54a 100644
--- a/src/ch10-00-generics.md
+++ b/src/ch10-00-generics.md
@@ -46,14 +46,13 @@ código duplicado que puede usar en los genéricos.
 Comenzamos con un corto programa en el listado 10-1 que encuentra el número
 más grande en una lista.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-01/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-1: Encontrando el mayor número en una lista de
-números
+
 
 Almacenamos una lista de enteros en la variable `number_list` y colocamos una
 referencia al primer número de la lista en una variable llamada `largest`.
@@ -70,14 +69,13 @@ números. Para hacerlo, podemos duplicar el código en el listado 10-1 y usar la
 misma lógica en dos lugares diferentes en el programa, como se muestra en el
 listado 10-2.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-02/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-2: Código para encontrar el mayor número en
-_dos_ listas de números
+
 
 Aunque este código funciona, duplicar el código es tedioso y propenso a errores.
 También tenemos que recordar actualizar el código en varios lugares cuando
@@ -93,14 +91,13 @@ función llamada `largest`. Luego llamamos a la función para encontrar el mayor
 número en las dos listas del listado 10-2. También podríamos usar la función
 en cualquier otra lista de valores `i32` que podríamos tener en el futuro.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-03/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-3: Código abstracto para encontrar el número
-mayor en dos listas
+
 
 La función `largest` tiene un parámetro llamado `list`, que representa cualquier
 slice de valores `ì32` que podríamos pasar a la función. Como resultado, cuando
diff --git a/src/ch10-01-syntax.md b/src/ch10-01-syntax.md
index 57b16b018..09c2d5577 100644
--- a/src/ch10-01-syntax.md
+++ b/src/ch10-01-syntax.md
@@ -18,14 +18,13 @@ Continuando con nuestra función `largest`, el listado 10-4 muestra dos
 funciones que encuentran el valor más grande en un slice. Luego
 combinaremos estos en una sola función que usa genéricos.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-04/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-4: Dos funciones que difieren solo en sus
-nombres y los tipos en sus firmas
+
 
 La función `largest_i32` es la que extrajimos en el listado 10-3 que encuentra
 el `i32` más grande en un slice. La función `largest_char` encuentra el
@@ -64,14 +63,13 @@ llamar a la función con un slice de valores `i32` o valores `char`. Tenga en
 cuenta que este código aún no se compilará, pero lo arreglaremos más adelante
 en este capítulo.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-05/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 10-5: La función `largest` está usando parámetros
-de tipo genérico; esto aún no se compila
+
 
 Si compilamos este código ahora, obtendremos este error:
 
@@ -97,14 +95,13 @@ También podemos definir structs para usar tipos genéricos en uno o más campos
 usando la sintaxis `<>`. El listado 10-6 define un struct `Point` para
 contener valores `x` e `y` de cualquier tipo `T`.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-06/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 10-6: Un struct `Point` que contiene valores
-`x` and `y` de tipo `T`
+
 
 La sintaxis para usar genéricos en las definiciones de structs es similar a la
 que se usa en las definiciones de funciones. Primero, declaramos el nombre del
@@ -118,18 +115,17 @@ tipo `T`, y los campos `x` e `y` son _ambos_ ese mismo tipo, sea cual sea ese
 tipo. Si creamos una instancia de un `Point` que tenga valores de diferentes
 tipos, como en el listado 10-7, nuestro código no se compilará.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-07/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 10-7: Los campos `x` e `y` deben ser del mismo
-tipo porque ambos tienen el mismo tipo de dato genérico `T`.
+
 
-En este ejemplo, cuando asignamos el valor entero 5 a `x`, le decimos al
+En este ejemplo, cuando asignamos el valor entero `5` a `x`, le decimos al
 compilador que el tipo genérico `T` será un entero para esta instancia de
-`Point`. Luego, cuando especificamos 4.0 para `y`, que hemos definido para
+`Point`. Luego, cuando especificamos `4.0` para `y`, que hemos definido para
 tener el mismo tipo que `x`, obtendremos un error de tipo incompatible como
 este:
 
@@ -143,14 +139,13 @@ ejemplo, en el listado 10-8, cambiamos la definición de `Point` para que sea
 generic sobre los tipos `T` y `U` donde `x` es de tipo `T` y `y` es de tipo
 `U`.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-08/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-8: Un `Point` genérico sobre dos tipos
-para que `x` e `y` puedan ser valores de tipos diferentes
+
 
 ¡Ahora todas las instancias de `Point` que se muestran se permiten! Puede usar
 tantos parámetros de tipo genérico en una definición como desee, pero usar más
@@ -208,14 +203,13 @@ Podemos implementar métodos en structs y enums y usar tipos genéricos en sus
 definiciones también. El listado 10-9 muestra el struct `Point` que
 definimos en el listado 10-6 con un método llamado `x` implementado en él.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-09/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-9: Implementando un método llamado `x` en el
-struct `Point` que devolverá una referencia al campo `x` de tipo `T`
+
 
 Aquí, hemos definido un método llamado `x` en `Point` que devuelve una
 referencia a la data en el campo `x`.
@@ -238,15 +232,13 @@ de `Point` con cualquier tipo genérico. En el listado 10-10 usamos el tipo
 concreto `f32`, lo que significa que no declaramos ningún tipo después de
 `impl`.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-10/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-10: Un bloque `impl` que solo aplica a un
-struct con un tipo concreto particular para el parámetro del tipo genérico
-`T`
+
 
 Este código significa que el tipo `Point` tendrá un método
 `distance_from_origin` definido en él, y otros tipos de `Point` que no sean
@@ -261,14 +253,13 @@ listado 10-11 usa los tipos genéricos `X1` e `Y1` para el struct `Point` y `X2`
 método crea una nueva instancia de `Point` con el valor `x` del `self` `Point`
 (de tipo `X1`) y el valor `y` del `Point` pasado (de tipo `Y2`).
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-11/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-11: Un método que usa diferentes tipos genéricos
-de la definición de su struct
+
 
 En `main`, hemos definido un `Point` que tiene un `i32` para `x` (con valor `5`)
 y un `f64` para `y` (con valor `10.4`). La variable `p2` es un `Point` struct
@@ -319,7 +310,7 @@ genérica con las específicas.
 La versión monomorfizada del código se ve similar al siguiente (el compilador
 usa nombres diferentes a los que estamos usando aquí para ilustración):
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 enum Option_i32 {
@@ -338,6 +329,8 @@ fn main() {
 }
 ```
 
+
+
 El genérico `Option` se reemplaza con las definiciones específicas creadas por
 el compilador. Debido a que Rust compila código genérico en código que
 especifica el tipo en cada instancia, no pagamos ningún costo de rendimiento
diff --git a/src/ch10-02-traits.md b/src/ch10-02-traits.md
index 52df8d3cc..13b42f5a1 100644
--- a/src/ch10-02-traits.md
+++ b/src/ch10-02-traits.md
@@ -33,14 +33,13 @@ de cada tipo, y solicitaremos ese resumen llamando un método `summarize` en
 una instancia. El listado 10-12 muestra la definición de un trait `Summary`
 público que expresa este comportamiento.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-12/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-12: Un trait `Summary` que consiste en el
-comportamiento proporcionado por un método `summarize`
+
 
 Aquí, declaramos un trait usando la palabra clave `trait` y luego el nombre
 del trait, que en este caso es `Summary`. También hemos declarado el trait
@@ -69,14 +68,13 @@ encabezado, el autor y la ubicación para crear el valor de retorno de
 usuario seguido del texto completo del tweet, asumiendo que el contenido del
 tweet ya está limitado a 280 caracteres.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-13/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-13: Implementación del trait `Summary` en los
-tipos `NewsArticle` y `Tweet`
+
 
 Implementar un trait en un tipo es similar a implementar métodos regulares.
 La diferencia es que después de `impl`, ponemos el nombre del trait que
@@ -104,7 +102,7 @@ probably already know, people`.
 Otros crates que dependen de nuestro crate `aggregator` pueden usar el trait
 `Summary` en el ámbito para implementar `Summary` en sus propios tipos. Una
 restricción a tener en cuenta es que podemos implementar un trait en un tipo
-solo si al menos uno de los trait o el tipo es local a nuestro crate. Por
+solo si ambos el trait o el tipo, o ambos, son local a nuestro crate. Por
 ejemplo, podemos implementar traits de la biblioteca estándar como `Display`
 en un tipo personalizado como `Tweet` como parte de nuestra funcionalidad de
 crate `aggregator`, porque el tipo `Tweet` es local a nuestro crate
@@ -136,14 +134,13 @@ En el listado 10-14, especificamos un string predeterminado para el método
 `summarize` del trait `Summary` en lugar de solo definir la firma del método,
 como hicimos en el listado 10-12.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-14/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-14: Definición de un trait `Summary` con un
-valor predeterminado implementado del método `summarize`
+
 
 Para usar una implementación predeterminada para resumir instancias de
 `NewsArticle`, especificamos un bloque `impl` vacío con `impl Summary for
@@ -346,7 +343,7 @@ restricciones en torno a cómo se implementa la sintaxis `impl Trait` en el
 compilador. Cubriremos cómo escribir una función con este comportamiento en la
 sección [“Usando objetos trait que permiten valores de diferentes
 tipos”][usando-trait-objects-que-permiten-valores-de-diferentes-tipos] del Capítulo 17.
+ignore --> del Capítulo 18.
 
 ### Usando trait bounds para implementar métodos condicionalmente
 
@@ -361,18 +358,17 @@ implementa el método `cmp_display` si su tipo interno `T` implementa el trait
 `PartialOrd` que permite la comparación _y_ el trait `Display` que permite la
 impresión.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-15/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-15: Implementación condicional de métodos en un
-tipo generic dependiendo de los trait bounds
+
 
 También podemos implementar condicionalmente un trait para cualquier tipo que
 implemente otro trait. Implementaciones de un trait en cualquier tipo que
-satisfaga los trait bounds se llaman _implementaciones blanket_ y se usan
+satisfaga los trait bounds se llaman _implementaciones blanket_ y son usados
 extensivamente en la biblioteca estándar de Rust. Por ejemplo, la biblioteca
 estándar implementa el trait `ToString` en cualquier tipo que implemente el
 trait `Display`. El bloque `impl` en la biblioteca estándar se ve similar a este
@@ -410,5 +406,5 @@ código que verifique el comportamiento en tiempo de ejecución porque ya hemos
 verificado en tiempo de compilación. Hacerlo mejora el rendimiento sin tener que
 renunciar a la flexibilidad de los generics.
 
-[usando-trait-objects-que-permiten-valores-de-diferentes-tipos]: ch17-02-trait-objects.html#usando-trait-objects-que-permiten-valores-de-diferentes-tipos
+[usando-trait-objects-que-permiten-valores-de-diferentes-tipos]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html#usando-trait-objects-que-permiten-valores-de-diferentes-tipos
 [methods]: ch05-03-method-syntax.html#definiendo-metodos
diff --git a/src/ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.md b/src/ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.md
index 6928e1e03..5885a0722 100644
--- a/src/ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.md
+++ b/src/ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.md
@@ -10,11 +10,11 @@ Borrowing"][references-and-borrowing] en el Capítulo 4 es que
 cada referencia en Rust tiene un _lifetime_, que es el scope para el que esa
 referencia es válida. La mayoría de las veces, los lifetimes son implícitos e
 inferidos, al igual que la mayoría de las veces, los tipos se infieren.
-Solo debemos anotar los tipos cuando son posibles varios tipos. De manera
-similar, debemos anotar los lifetimes cuando los lifetimes de las referencias
-podrían estar relacionados de algunas maneras diferentes. Rust nos obliga a
-anotar las relaciones usando parámetros genéricos de lifetime para garantizar
-que las referencias reales utilizadas en tiempo de ejecución sean
+Nosotros debemos anotar los tipos solo cuando son posibles varios tipos. De 
+manera similar, debemos anotar los lifetimes cuando los lifetimes de las 
+referencias podrían estar relacionados de algunas maneras diferentes. Rust nos 
+obliga a anotar las relaciones usando parámetros genéricos de lifetime para 
+garantizar que las referencias reales utilizadas en tiempo de ejecución sean
 definitivamente válidas.
 
 Anotar lifetimes no es ni siquiera un concepto que la mayoría de los otros
@@ -30,12 +30,13 @@ que hacen que un programa haga referencia a datos que no son los que se
 pretende referenciar. Considere el programa en el listado 10-16, que tiene un
 scope externo y un scope interno.
 
++
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-16/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-16: Un intento de usar una referencia cuyo
-valor ha quedado fuera del scope
+
 
 > Nota: Los ejemplos en los Listados 10-16, 10-17 y 10-23 declaran variables
 > sin darles un valor inicial, por lo que el nombre de la variable existe en el
@@ -45,7 +46,7 @@ valor ha quedado fuera del scope
 > compilación, lo que muestra que Rust de hecho no permite valores nulos.
 
 El scope externo declara una variable llamada `r` sin valor inicial, y el scope
-interno declara una variable llamada `x` con el valor inicial de 5. Dentro del
+interno declara una variable llamada `x` con el valor inicial de `5`. Dentro del
 scope interno, intentamos establecer el valor de `r` como una referencia a `x`.
 Luego, el scope interno termina, e intentamos imprimir el valor en `r`. Este
 código no se compilará porque el valor al que se refiere `r` ha quedado fuera
@@ -55,13 +56,14 @@ del scope antes de que intentemos usarlo. Aquí está el mensaje de error:
 {{#include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-16/output.txt}}
 ```
 
-La variable `x` no “vive lo suficiente”. La razón es que `x` estará fuera del
-scope cuando el scope interno termine en la línea 7. Pero `r` todavía es
-válido para el scope externo; porque su scope es más grande, decimos que
-“vive más tiempo”. Si Rust permitiera que este código funcionara, `r` estaría
-referenciando memoria que se desasignó cuando `x` quedó fuera del scope, y
-cualquier cosa que intentemos hacer con `r` no funcionaría correctamente. ¿Cómo
-determina Rust que este código es inválido? Utiliza el _borrow checker_.
+El mensaje de error dice que la variable `x` no “vive lo suficiente”. La razón 
+es que `x` estará fuera del scope cuando el scope interno termine en la línea 7. 
+Pero `r` todavía es válido para el scope externo; porque su scope es más grande, 
+decimos que “vive más tiempo”. Si Rust permitiera que este código funcionara, 
+`r` estaría referenciando memoria que se desasignó cuando `x` quedó fuera del 
+scope, y cualquier cosa que intentemos hacer con `r` no funcionaría 
+correctamente. ¿Cómo determina Rust que este código es inválido? Utiliza el 
+_borrow checker_.
 
 ### El Borrow Checker
 
@@ -70,12 +72,13 @@ determinar si todos los _borrows_ son válidos. El listado 10-17 muestra el
 mismo código que el listado 10-16, pero con anotaciones que muestran los
 lifetimes de las variables.
 
++
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-17/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-17: Anotaciones de los lifetimes de `r` y
-`x`, denominados `'a` y `'b`, respectivamente
+
 
 Aquí, hemos anotado el lifetime de `r` con `'a` y el lifetime de `x` con `'b`.
 Como puede ver, el bloque interno `'b` es mucho más pequeño que el bloque
@@ -87,12 +90,13 @@ corto que `'a`: el sujeto de la referencia no vive tanto como la referencia.
 El listado 10-18 corrige el código para que no tenga una referencia pendiente y
 se compile sin errores.
 
++
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-18/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-18: Una referencia válida porque los datos
-tienen un lifetime más largo que la referencia
+
 
 Aquí, `x` tiene el lifetime `'b` que en este caso es más grande que `'a`. Esto
 significa que `r` puede hacer referencia a `x` porque Rust sabe que la
@@ -110,14 +114,13 @@ Esta función tomará dos _string slices_ y devolverá un solo _string slice_.
 Después de haber implementado la función `longest`, el código en el listado
 10-19 debería imprimir `The longest string is abcd`.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-19/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-19: Una función `main` que llama a la
-función `longest` para encontrar el más largo de dos string slices
+
 
 Ten en cuenta que queremos que la función tome _string slices_, que son
 referencias, en lugar de _strings_, porque no queremos que la función `longest`
@@ -129,14 +132,13 @@ obtener más información sobre por qué los parámetros que usamos en el listad
 Si intentamos implementar la función `longest` como se muestra en el listado
 10-20, no se compilará.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-20/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-20: Una implementación de la función `longest`
-que devuelve el más largo de dos string slices pero aún no compila
+
 
 En su lugar, obtenemos el siguiente error que habla sobre lifetimes:
 
@@ -207,15 +209,13 @@ entre los lifetimes de los parámetros y el valor de retorno. Nombraremos al
 lifetime `'a` y luego lo agregaremos a cada referencia, como se muestra en el
 listado 10-21.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-21/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-21: La definición de la función `longest`
-que especifica que todas las referencias en la firma deben tener el mismo
-lifetime `'a`
+
 
 Este código debe compilar y producir el resultado que queremos cuando lo
 usamos con la función `main` en el listado 10-19.
@@ -261,14 +261,13 @@ Veamos cómo las anotaciones de los lifetimes restringen la función `longest`
 pasando referencias que tienen diferentes lifetimes concretos. El listado
 10-22 es un ejemplo sencillo.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-22/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-22: Usando la función `longest` con referencias
-a valores `String` que tienen diferentes lifetimes concretos
+
 
 En este ejemplo, `string1` es válida hasta el final del scope externo, `string2`
 es válida hasta el final del scope interno, y `result` referencia algo que es
@@ -284,14 +283,13 @@ moveremos la llamada a `println!` que usa `result` fuera del scope interno,
 después de que el scope interno haya terminado. El código del listado 10-23 no
 compilará.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-23/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-23: Intentando utilizar `result` después de que
-`string2` haya quedado fuera del scope
+
 
 Cuando intentamos compilar este código, obtenemos este error:
 
@@ -305,7 +303,7 @@ Rust sabe esto porque anotamos los lifetimes de los parámetros de la función y
 los valores de retorno usando el mismo parámetro de lifetime `'a`.
 
 Como humanos, podemos mirar este código y ver que `string1` es más larga que
-`string2` y por lo tanto `result` contendrá una referencia a `string1`. Debido a
+`string2`, y por lo tanto, `result` contendrá una referencia a `string1`. Debido a
 que `string1` aún no ha quedado fuera del scope, una referencia a `string1`
 todavía será válida para la instrucción `println!`. Sin embargo, el compilador
 no puede ver que la referencia sea válida en este caso. Le hemos dicho a Rust
@@ -327,12 +325,14 @@ de la función `longest` para que siempre devuelva el primer parámetro en lugar
 de la referencia a la cadena más larga, no necesitaríamos especificar un
 lifetime en el parámetro `y`. El siguiente código compilará:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-08-only-one-reference-with-lifetime/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
+
+
 Hemos especificado un parámetro de lifetime `'a` para el parámetro `x` y el tipo
 de retorno, pero no para el parámetro `y` porque el lifetime de `y` no tiene
 ninguna relación con el lifetime de `x` o el valor de retorno.
@@ -345,12 +345,14 @@ una referencia colgante porque el valor quedará fuera del scope al final de la
 función. Considera esta implementación intentada de la función `longest` que no
 se compilará:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-09-unrelated-lifetime/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
+
+
 Aquí, aunque hemos especificado un parámetro de lifetime `'a` para el tipo de
 retorno, esta implementación no se compilará porque el lifetime del valor
 retornado no está relacionado en absoluto con el lifetime de los parámetros.
@@ -382,14 +384,13 @@ agregar una anotación de lifetime en cada referencia en la definición del
 struct. El listado 10-24 tiene un struct llamado `ImportantExcerpt` que contiene
 una string slice.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-24/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-24: Un struct que contiene una referencia,
-lo que requiere una annotation de lifetime
+
 
 Este struct tiene el campo `part` que contiene un string slice, que es una
 referencia. Como con los tipos de datos generics, declaramos el nombre del
@@ -413,15 +414,13 @@ parámetros de lifetime para las funciones o structs que usan referencias. Sin
 embargo, en el Capítulo 4, tuvimos una función en el listado 4-9, que se muestra
 nuevamente en el listado 10-25, que se compiló sin anotaciones de lifetime.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-25/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 10-25: Una función que definimos en el listado 4-9
-que compiló sin anotaciones de lifetime, a pesar de que el parámetro y el tipo
-de retorno son referencias
+
 
 La razón por la que esta función se compila sin anotaciones de lifetime es
 histórica: en las primeras versiones (pre-1.0) de Rust, este código no se
@@ -637,7 +636,7 @@ flexible no tendrá referencias colgantes. ¡Y todo este análisis ocurre en tie
 de compilación, lo que no afecta el rendimiento en tiempo de ejecución!
 
 Aunque no lo creas, hay mucho más que aprender sobre los temas que discutimos en
-este capítulo: el Capítulo 17 discute los trait objects, que son otra forma de
+este capítulo: el Capítulo 18 discute los trait objects, que son otra forma de
 usar traits. También hay escenarios más complejos que involucran anotaciones de
 lifetime que solo necesitarás en escenarios muy avanzados; para esos, debes leer
 la [Referencia de Rust][reference]. Pero a continuación, aprenderás cómo
diff --git a/src/ch11-00-testing.md b/src/ch11-00-testing.md
index b0b144fbf..255a0c0ae 100644
--- a/src/ch11-00-testing.md
+++ b/src/ch11-00-testing.md
@@ -27,9 +27,9 @@ función `add_two`, el valor devuelto es `5`. Podemos ejecutar estos tests
 siempre que hagamos cambios en nuestro código para asegurarnos de que cualquier
 comportamiento correcto existente no haya cambiado.
 
-El Testing es una habilidad compleja: aunque no podemos cubrir todos los
-detalles sobre cómo escribir buenos tests en un capítulo, discutiremos los
-mecanismos de las instalaciones de testing de Rust. Hablaremos sobre las
-anotaciones y macros disponibles para ti cuando escribas tus tests, el
+El Testing es una habilidad compleja: aunque no podemos cubrir en un capitulo 
+todos los detalles sobre cómo escribir buenos tests en este capítulo, 
+discutiremos los mecanismos de las instalaciones de testing de Rust. Hablaremos 
+sobre las anotaciones y macros disponibles para ti cuando escribas tus tests, el
 comportamiento predeterminado y las opciones proporcionadas para ejecutar tus
 tests, y cómo organizar los tests en tests unitarios y tests de integración.
diff --git a/src/ch11-01-writing-tests.md b/src/ch11-01-writing-tests.md
index 5dd04d043..8712da5fe 100644
--- a/src/ch11-01-writing-tests.md
+++ b/src/ch11-01-writing-tests.md
@@ -44,15 +44,16 @@ $ cd adder
 El contenido del archivo `src/lib.rs` en tu librería `adder` debería verse como
 el Listado 11-1.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 
 
@@ -60,8 +61,7 @@ cd ../../..
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 11-1: El módulo test y la función generada
-automáticamente por `cargo new`
+
 
 Por ahora, ignoremos las dos primeras líneas y nos enfoquemos solamente en la 
 función `it_works()`.
@@ -78,18 +78,19 @@ el test falla. Si son iguales, no pasa nada y el test pasa.
 El comando `cargo test` ejecuta todos los tests en tu proyecto de librería, Como
 puedes ver en el Listado 11-2.
 
++
 ```console
 {{#include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/output.txt}}
 ```
 
-Listing 11-2: El resultado de ejecutar el test generado
-automáticamente
+
 
 Cargo compila y ejecuta el test. Vemos la línea `running 1 test`. La siguiente
-línea muestra el nombre de la función de test generada, llamada `it_works`, y
-que el resultado de ejecutar ese test es `ok`. El resumen general `test result:
-ok.` significa que todos los tests pasaron, y la porción que lee `1 passed; 0
-failed` totaliza el número de tests que pasaron o fallaron.
+línea muestra el nombre de la función de test generada, llamada 
+`tests::it_works`, y que el resultado de ejecutar ese test es `ok`. El resumen 
+general `test result: ok.` significa que todos los tests pasaron, y la porción 
+que lee `1 passed; 0 failed` totaliza el número de tests que pasaron o fallaron.
 
 Es posible marcar un test como ignorado para que no se ejecute en una
 particular instancia; cubriremos eso en la sección [“Ignorando algunos tests a
@@ -106,13 +107,20 @@ Los tests de benchmark, al momento de escribir esto, solo están disponibles en
 Rust nightly. Ver [la documentación sobre tests de benchmark][bench] para
 aprender más.
 
+Nosotros podemos pasar un argumento al comando `cargo test` para ejecutar solo
+los tests que coincidan con el nombre en un string; esto es conocido como 
+*filtering* y lo cubriremos en la sección 
+[“Ejecutando un sub conjunto de Tests por Nombre”][subset]. Aquí
+no filtraremos los tests para ser ejecutados, al final de todo mostrara 
+`0 filtered out`.
+
 La siguiente parte del output de test, comenzando con `Doc-tests adder`, es
 para los resultados de cualquier test de documentación. No tenemos tests de
 documentación aún, pero Rust puede compilar cualquier ejemplo de código que
 aparezca en nuestra documentación de API. ¡Esta característica ayuda a mantener
 tus docs y tu código en sincronía! Discutiremos cómo escribir tests de
-documentación en la sección [“Documentación como tests”][doc-comments] del Capítulo 14. Por ahora, ignoraremos el output `Doc-tests`.
+documentación en la sección [“Documentación como tests”][doc-comments] 
+del Capítulo 14. Por ahora, ignoraremos el output `Doc-tests`.
 
 Comenzaremos a personalizar el test para nuestras propias necesidades. Primero
 cambiaremos el nombre de la función `it_works` a un nombre diferente, como
@@ -139,31 +147,36 @@ forma más simple de hacer panic es llamar a la macro `panic!`. Ingresa el nuevo
 test como una función llamada `another`, así que tu archivo _src/lib.rs_ se ve
 como el Listado 11-3.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,panics,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-03/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-03/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 11-3: Agregando un segundo test que fallará porque
-llamamos a la macro `panic!`
+
 
 Volvemos a ejecutar los tests usando `cargo test`. El output debería verse como
 el Listado 11-4, que muestra que nuestro test `exploration` pasó y `another`
 falló.
 
++
 ```console
 {{#include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-03/output.txt}}
 ```
 
-Listing 11-4: Resultados del test cuando un test pasa y el
-otro falla
+
+
+
 
 En lugar de `ok`, la línea `test tests::another` muestra `FAILED`. Dos nuevas
 secciones aparecen entre los resultados individuales y el resumen: la primera
 muestra la razón detallada de cada falla de test. En este caso, obtenemos los
 detalles de que `another` falló porque `panicked at 'Make this test fail'` en la
-línea 10 del archivo _src/lib.rs_. La siguiente sección lista solo los nombres
+línea 17 del archivo _src/lib.rs_. La siguiente sección lista solo los nombres
 de todos los tests que fallaron, lo cual es útil cuando hay muchos tests y
 mucho output detallado de tests fallidos. Podemos usar el nombre de un test
 fallido para ejecutar solo ese test y depurarlo más fácilmente; hablaremos más
@@ -191,14 +204,13 @@ En el capítulo 5, en el Listado 5-15, usamos un struct `Rectangle` y un método
 archivo _src/lib.rs_, luego escribiremos algunos tests para él usando la macro
 `assert!`.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-05/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-05/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 11-5: Usando el struct `Rectangle` y su método
-`can_hold` del Capítulo 5
+
 
 El método `can_hold` devuelve un valor booleano, lo que significa que es un caso
 de uso perfecto para la macro `assert!`. En el Listado 11-6, escribimos un test
@@ -206,14 +218,13 @@ que ejercita el método `can_hold` creando una instancia de `Rectangle` que tien
 un ancho de 8 y una altura de 7 y afirmando que puede contener otra instancia
 de `Rectangle` que tiene un ancho de 5 y una altura de 1.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-06/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 11-6: Un test para `can_hold` que verifica si un
-rectángulo más grande puede contener un rectángulo más pequeño
+
 
 Observa que hemos agregado una nueva línea dentro del módulo `tests`: `use
 super::*;`. El módulo `tests` es un módulo regular que sigue las reglas de
@@ -267,8 +278,8 @@ Ejecutar los tests ahora produce lo siguiente:
 {{#include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-03-introducing-a-bug/output.txt}}
 ```
 
-¡Nuestros tests atraparon el bug! Debido a que `larger.width` es 8 y
-`smaller.width` es 5, la comparación de los anchos en `can_hold` ahora devuelve
+¡Nuestros tests atraparon el bug! Debido a que `larger.width` es `8` y
+`smaller.width` es `5`, la comparación de los anchos en `can_hold` ahora devuelve
 `false`: 8 no es menor que 5.
 
 ### Testeando la igualdad con las macros `assert_eq!` y `assert_ne!`
@@ -287,14 +298,13 @@ la expresión `==`, sin imprimir los valores que llevaron al valor `false`.
 En el Listado 11-7, escribimos una función llamada `add_two` que suma `2` a su
 parámetro, luego testeamos esta función usando la macro `assert_eq!`.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-07/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 11-7: Testeando la función `add_two` usando la
-macro `assert_eq!`
+
 
 ¡Veamos que pasa!
 
@@ -302,9 +312,10 @@ macro `assert_eq!`
 {{#include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-07/output.txt}}
 ```
 
-Hemos pasado `4` como argumento a `assert_eq!`, que es igual al resultado de
-llamar a `add_two(2)`. La línea para este test es `test tests::it_adds_two ...
-ok`, y el texto `ok` indica que nuestro test pasó!
+Creamos una variable llamada `result`que contiene el resultado de la llamada 
+`add_two(2)`. Luego hemos pasado `4` como argumento a `assert_eq!`, que es igual 
+al resultado de llamar a `add_two(2)`. La línea para este test es 
+`test tests::it_adds_two ... ok`, y el texto `ok` indica que nuestro test pasó!
 
 Vamos a introducir un error en nuestro código para ver cómo se ve `assert_eq!`
 cuando falla. Cambiaremos la implementación de la función `add_two` para que
@@ -332,7 +343,7 @@ las funciones de aserción de igualdad se llaman `expected` y `actual`, y el
 orden en que especificamos los argumentos importa. Sin embargo, en Rust, se
 llaman `left` y `right`, y el orden en que especificamos el valor que esperamos
 y el valor que el código produce no importa. Podríamos escribir la aserción en
-este test como `assert_eq!(add_two(2), 4)`, lo que resultaría en el mismo
+este test como `assert_eq!(4, result)`, lo que resultaría en el mismo
 mensaje de error que muestra `` assertion failed: `(left == right)` ``.
 
 La macro `assert_ne!` pasará si los dos valores que le proporcionamos no son
@@ -376,7 +387,6 @@ nombre y queremos probar que el nombre que pasamos a la función aparece en el
 output:
 
 Filename: src/lib.rs
-
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-05-greeter/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
@@ -439,14 +449,13 @@ código dentro de la función no hace un panic.
 El Listado 11-8 muestra un test que verifica que las condiciones de error de
 `Guess::new` sucedan cuando esperamos que sucedan.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-08/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 11-8: Testeando que una condición causará un
-`panic!`
+
 
 Colocamos el atributo `#[should_panic]` después del atributo `#[test]` y antes
 de la función de test a la que se aplica. Veamos el resultado cuando pase este
@@ -482,20 +491,19 @@ proporcionado. Por ejemplo, considera el código modificado para `Guess` en el
 Listado 11-9 donde la función `new` hace un panic con mensajes diferentes
 dependiendo de si el valor es demasiado pequeño o demasiado grande.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-09/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 11-9: Testeando un `panic!` con un mensaje panic
-que contiene un substring específico
+
 
 Este test fallará porque el valor que pusimos en el parámetro `expected` del
 atributo `should_panic` es un substring del mensaje que genera la función
 `Guess::new`. Podríamos haber especificado todo el mensaje de excepción que
 esperamos, que en este caso sería `Guess value must be less than or equal to
-100, got 200.`. Lo que elijas especificar depende de cuánto del mensaje de
+100, got 200`. Lo que elijas especificar depende de cuánto del mensaje de
 excepción es único o dinámico y de cuán preciso quieras que sea tu test. En
 este caso, un substring del mensaje de excepción es suficiente para asegurar
 que el código en la función de test ejecuta el caso `else if value > 100`.
@@ -528,7 +536,7 @@ reescrito para usar `Result` y devolver un `Err` en lugar de hacer un
 panic:
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-10-result-in-tests/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-10-result-in-tests/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
 La función `it_works` ahora tiene el tipo de retorno `Result<(), String>`. En
diff --git a/src/ch11-02-running-tests.md b/src/ch11-02-running-tests.md
index 750aeada8..4aee6714a 100644
--- a/src/ch11-02-running-tests.md
+++ b/src/ch11-02-running-tests.md
@@ -14,7 +14,11 @@ de test resultante. Para separar estos dos tipos de argumentos, debes listar los
 argumentos que van a `cargo test` seguidos del separador `--` y luego los que
 van al binario de test. Ejecutar `cargo test --help` muestra las opciones que
 puedes usar con `cargo test`, y ejecutar `cargo test -- --help` muestra las
-opciones que puedes usar después del separador.
+opciones que puedes usar después del separador. Esas opciones también están 
+documentadas en la [sección "Tests"][tests] del [libro de rustc][rustc].
+
+[tests]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/rustc/tests/index.html
+[rustc]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/rustc/index.html
 
 ### Ejecutando tests en paralelo o consecutivamente
 
@@ -62,14 +66,13 @@ falla.
 Como ejemplo, el Listado 11-10 tiene una función tonta que imprime el valor de
 su parámetro y retorna 10, así como un test que pasa y un test que falla.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,panics,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-10/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 11-10: Tests para una función que llama a
-`println!`
+
 
 Cuando ejecutamos estos tests con `cargo test`, vemos el siguiente output:
 
@@ -108,14 +111,13 @@ Para demostrar cómo ejecutar un subset de tests, primero crearemos tres tests
 para nuestra función `add_two`, como se muestra en el Listado 11-11, y
 elegiremos cuáles ejecutar.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-11/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 11-11: Tres tests con tres nombres
-diferentes
+
 
 Si ejecutamos los tests sin pasar ningún argumento, como vimos anteriormente,
 todos los tests se ejecutarán en paralelo:
@@ -168,7 +170,7 @@ ejecutar, puedes anotar los tests que consumen mucho tiempo usando el atributo
 Filename: src/lib.rs
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
 Después de `#[test]` agregamos la línea `#[ignore]` al test que queremos
@@ -187,8 +189,8 @@ solo los tests ignorados, podemos usar `cargo test -- -- ignored`:
 ```
 
 Controlando que tests se ejecutan, puedes asegurarte de que los resultados de
-`cargo test` serán rápidos. Cuando estés en un punto en el que tenga sentido
-verificar los resultados de los tests ignorados y tengas tiempo para esperar
-los resultados, puedes ejecutar `cargo test -- --ignored` en su lugar. Si
-quieres ejecutar todos los tests, ignorados o no, puedes ejecutar `cargo test
--- --include-ignored`.
+`cargo test` serán retornados rápidamente. Cuando estés en un punto en el que 
+tenga sentido verificar los resultados de los tests ignorados y tengas tiempo 
+para esperar los resultados, puedes ejecutar `cargo test -- --ignored` en su 
+lugar. Si quieres ejecutar todos los tests, ignorados o no, puedes ejecutar 
+`cargo test -- --include-ignored`.
diff --git a/src/ch11-03-test-organization.md b/src/ch11-03-test-organization.md
index 0ffc08d3e..cc0e4a722 100644
--- a/src/ch11-03-test-organization.md
+++ b/src/ch11-03-test-organization.md
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ de este capítulo, Cargo generó este código para nosotros:
 ```
 
 Este código es el módulo de tests generado automáticamente. El atributo `cfg`
-significa _configuración_ y le dice a Rust que el siguiente item debería ser
+significa *configuración* y le dice a Rust que el siguiente item debería ser
 incluido solo si una cierta opción de configuración está presente. En este
 caso, la opción de configuración es `test`, la cual es provista por Rust para
 compilar y ejecutar tests. Al usar el atributo `cfg`, Cargo compila nuestro
@@ -59,13 +59,13 @@ testing a la que te adhieras, las reglas de privacidad de Rust te permiten
 testear funciones privadas. Considera el código en el Listado 11-12 con la
 función privada `internal_adder`.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-12/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 11-12: Testeando una función privada
+
 
 Nota que la función `internal_adder` no está marcada como `pub`. Los tests son
 solo código Rust, y el módulo `tests` es solo otro módulo. Como discutimos en
@@ -111,23 +111,22 @@ adder
 ```
 
 Introducimos el código en el Listado 11-13 en el archivo
-_tests/integration_test.rs_:
+*tests/integration_test.rs*:
 
-Filename: tests/integration_test.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/tests/integration_test.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 11-13: Un test de integración de una función en el
-crate `adder`
+
 
-Cada archivo en el directorio _tests_ es un crate separado, así que necesitamos
+Cada archivo en el directorio *tests* es un crate separado, así que necesitamos
 importar nuestra biblioteca en el scope de cada crate de test. Por esa razón,
 agregamos `use adder::add_two` al inicio del código, lo cual no necesitamos en 
 los tests unitarios.
 
-No es necesario anotar ningún código en _tests/integration_test.rs_ con
+No es necesario anotar ningún código en *tests/integration_test.rs* con
 `#[cfg(test)]`. Cargo trata al directorio `tests` de manera especial y compila
 los archivos en este directorio solo cuando ejecutamos `cargo test`. Ejecuta
 `cargo test` ahora:
@@ -211,7 +210,7 @@ mostrado para él no es lo que queríamos. Solo queríamos compartir algo de có
 con los otros archivos de test de integración.
 
 Para evitar que `common` aparezca en el output de los tests, en lugar de crear
-_tests/common.rs_, crearemos _tests/common/mod.rs_. El directorio del proyecto
+*tests/common.rs*, crearemos *tests/common/mod.rs*. El directorio del proyecto
 ahora se ve así:
 
 ```text
@@ -258,11 +257,11 @@ exponen funciones que otros crates pueden usar; los crates binarios están
 destinados a ser ejecutados por sí mismos.
 
 Esta es una de las razones por las que los proyectos Rust que proveen un binario
-tienen un archivo _src/main.rs_ que llama a la lógica que vive en el archivo
-_src/lib.rs_. Usando esa estructura, los tests de integración _pueden_ probar el
+tienen un archivo *src/main.rs* que llama a la lógica que vive en el archivo
+*src/lib.rs*. Usando esa estructura, los tests de integración *pueden* probar el
 crate de la librería con `use` para hacer que la funcionalidad importante esté
 disponible. Si la funcionalidad importante funciona, la pequeña cantidad de
-código en el archivo _src/main.rs_ también funcionará, y ese pequeño código no
+código en el archivo *src/main.rs* también funcionará, y ese pequeño código no
 necesita ser testeado.
 
 ## Resumen
diff --git a/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md b/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md
index 36ea74a05..4bbbbb083 100644
--- a/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md
+++ b/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md
@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ hasta ahora:
 * Escribiendo tests ([Capítulo 11][ch11])
 
 También presentaremos brevemente los closures, iterators, y trait objects, que
-los capítulos [13][ch13] y [17][ch17] cubrirán en
+los capítulos [13][ch13] y [18][ch18] cubrirán en
 detalle.
 
 [ch7]: ch07-00-managing-growing-projects-with-packages-crates-and-modules.html
@@ -52,4 +52,4 @@ detalle.
 [ch10]: ch10-00-generics.html
 [ch11]: ch11-00-testing.html
 [ch13]: ch13-00-functional-features.html
-[ch17]: ch17-00-oop.html
+[ch18]: ch18-00-oop.html
diff --git a/src/ch12-01-accepting-command-line-arguments.md b/src/ch12-01-accepting-command-line-arguments.md
index a565f55ce..9daacaf18 100644
--- a/src/ch12-01-accepting-command-line-arguments.md
+++ b/src/ch12-01-accepting-command-line-arguments.md
@@ -42,14 +42,13 @@ El código en el Listado 12-1 permite que tu programa `minigrep` lea cualquier
 argumento de línea de comandos que se le pase y luego recoja los valores en un
 vector.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-01/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-1: Recopilando los argumentos de línea de
-comandos en un vector e imprimiéndolos
+
 
 Primero, traemos el módulo `std::env` al alcance con una declaración `use` para
 que podamos usar su función `args`. Ten en cuenta que la función
@@ -107,14 +106,13 @@ argumentos de línea de comandos. Ahora necesitamos guardar los valores de los
 dos argumentos en variables para que podamos usar los valores en el resto del
 programa. Hacemos eso en el Listado 12-2.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,should_panic,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-02/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-2: Creando variables para contener el argumento
-de consulta y la ruta de archivo
+
 
 Como vimos cuando imprimimos en el vector, el nombre del programa ocupa el
 primer valor del vector en `args[0]`, por lo que estamos comenzando a leer los
diff --git a/src/ch12-02-reading-a-file.md b/src/ch12-02-reading-a-file.md
index 6270ccfa9..e1c4d423c 100644
--- a/src/ch12-02-reading-a-file.md
+++ b/src/ch12-02-reading-a-file.md
@@ -7,32 +7,31 @@ algunas palabras repetidas! ¡El Listado 12-3 tiene un poema de Emily Dickinson
 que funcionará bien! Cree un archivo llamado *poem.txt* en el nivel raíz de su
 proyecto e ingrese el poema "¡Soy nadie! ¿Quién eres tú?"
 
-Filename: poem.txt
+ 
 ```text
 {{#include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-03/poem.txt}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-3: Un poema de Emily Dickinson sirve como
-buen caso de test
+
 
 Con el texto en su lugar, edite *src/main.rs* y agregue código para leer el
 archivo, como se muestra en el Listado 12-4.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,should_panic,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-04/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-4: Leyendo el contenido del archivo 
-especificado por el segundo argumento
+
 
 Primero, importamos la parte relevante de la biblioteca estándar con una
 sentencia `use`: necesitamos `std::fs` para manejar archivos.
 
 En `main`, la nueva sentencia `fs::read_to_string` toma el `file_path`, abre
-ese archivo y devuelve un `std::io::Result` del contenido del archivo.
+ese archivo y devuelve un valor de tipo `std::io::Result` que contiene 
+el contenido del archivo.
 
 Luego, nuevamente agregamos una declaración `println!` temporal que imprime el
 valor de `contents` después de que se lee el archivo, para que podamos verificar
diff --git a/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md b/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md
index 32d605075..cf871ccb7 100644
--- a/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md
+++ b/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md
@@ -46,8 +46,8 @@ comunidad de Rust ha desarrollado pautas para dividir las preocupaciones
 separadas de un programa binario cuando `main` comienza a crecer. Este proceso
 tiene los siguientes pasos:
 
-- Divide tu programa en un _main.rs_ y un _lib.rs_ y mueve la lógica de tu
-  programa a _lib.rs_.
+- Divide tu programa en un archivo _main.rs_ y un archivo _lib.rs_ y mueve la 
+  lógica de tu programa a _lib.rs_.
 - Mientras la lógica de análisis de línea de comandos sea pequeña, puede
   permanecer en _main.rs_.
 - Cuando la lógica de análisis de línea de comandos comience a complicarse,
@@ -78,14 +78,13 @@ comandos a _src/lib.rs_. La lista 12-5 muestra el nuevo inicio de `main` que
 llama a una nueva función `parse_config`, que definiremos en _src/main.rs_ por
 el momento.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-05/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-5: Extrayendo una función `parse_config` de
-`main`
+
 
 En este cambio, aún estamos recopilando los argumentos de la línea de comandos
 en un vector, pero en lugar de asignar el valor del argumento en el índice 1 a
@@ -122,14 +121,13 @@ propósito.
 
 Listing 12-6 muestra las mejoras a la función `parse_config`.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,should_panic,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-06/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-6: Refactorizando `parse_config` para que
-devuelva una instancia de un struct `Config`
+
 
 Hemos agregado un struct llamado `Config` definido para tener campos llamados
 `query` y `file_path`. La firma de `parse_config` ahora índica que devuelve un
@@ -192,14 +190,13 @@ instancias de tipos en la biblioteca estándar, como `String`, llamando a
 asociada con `Config`, podremos crear instancias de `Config` llamando a
 `Config::new`. El listado 12-7 muestra los cambios que debemos hacer.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,should_panic,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-07/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-7: Cambiando `parse_config` a
-`Config::new`
+
 
 Hemos actualizado `main` donde estábamos llamando a `parse_config` para que en
 su lugar llame a `Config::new`. Hemos cambiado el nombre de `parse_config` a
@@ -229,20 +226,19 @@ verificará que el slice sea lo suficientemente largo antes de acceder al índic
 1 y 2. Si el slice no es lo suficientemente largo, el programa entra en pánico
 y muestra un mensaje de error mejor.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-08/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-8: Agregando una verificación para el número de
-argumentos
+
 
 Este código es similar a [la función `Guess::new` que escribimos en el Listado
 9-13][ch9-custom-types], donde llamamos a `panic!` cuando el
 argumento `value` estaba fuera del rango de valores válidos. En lugar de
 verificar un rango de valores aquí, estamos verificando que la longitud de
-`args` sea al menos 3 y el resto de la función puede operar bajo la suposición
+`args` sea al menos `3` y el resto de la función puede operar bajo la suposición
 de que esta condición se ha cumplido. Si `args` tiene menos de tres elementos,
 esta condición será verdadera y llamaremos a la macro `panic!` para finalizar
 el programa inmediatamente.
@@ -286,14 +282,13 @@ necesario para devolver un `Result`. Ten en cuenta que esto no se compilará
 hasta que actualicemos `main` también, lo cual haremos en el siguiente
 listado.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-09/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-9: Devolviendo un `Result` desde
-`Config::build`
+
 
 Nuestra función `build` devuelve un `Result` con una instancia de `Config` en
 el caso de éxito y una referencia a un string en el caso de error. Nuestros
@@ -322,14 +317,13 @@ de error distinto de cero de `panic!` e implementarlo a mano. Un estado de
 salida distinto de cero es una convención para señalar al proceso que llamó a
 nuestro programa que el programa salió con un estado de error.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-10/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-10: Saliendo con un código de error si falla la
-construcción de una `Config`
+
 
 En este listado, hemos usado un método que aún no hemos cubierto en detalle:
 `unwrap_or_else`, que está definido en `Result` por la biblioteca
@@ -375,14 +369,13 @@ El Listado 12-11 muestra la función `run` extraída. Por ahora, solo estamos
 haciendo la pequeña mejora incremental de extraer la función. Todavía estamos
 definiendo la función en _src/main.rs_.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-11/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-11: Extracting a `run` function containing the
-rest of the program logic
+
 
 La función `run` ahora contiene toda la lógica restante de `main`, comenzando
 desde la lectura del archivo. La función `run` toma la instancia de `Config`
@@ -398,14 +391,13 @@ Esto nos permitirá consolidar aún más la lógica que rodea el manejo de error
 en `main` de una manera amigable para el usuario. El Listado 12-12 muestra los
 cambios que debemos hacer en la firma y el cuerpo de `run`.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-12/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-12: Cambiando la función `run` para devolver
-`Result`
+
 
 Hemos realizado tres cambios significativos aquí. Primero, cambiamos el tipo de
 retorno de la función `run` a `Result<(), Box>`. Esta función
@@ -414,12 +406,13 @@ devuelto en el caso `Ok`.
 
 Para el tipo de error, usamos el _trait object_ `Box` (y hemos
 traído `std::error::Error` al alcance con una declaración `use` en la parte
-superior). Cubriremos los _trait objects_ en el [Capítulo 17][ch17]. Por ahora, solo sepa que `Box` significa que la función
 devolverá un tipo que implementa el trait `Error`, pero no tenemos que
 especificar qué tipo particular será el valor de retorno. Esto nos da
 flexibilidad para devolver valores de error que pueden ser de diferentes tipos
-en diferentes casos de error. La palabra clave `dyn` es corta para “dynamic”.
+en diferentes casos de error. La palabra clave `dyn` es una abreviación de 
+*“dynamic”*.
 
 Segundo, hemos eliminado la llamada a `expect` en favor del operador `?`, como
 hablamos en el [Capítulo 9][ch9-question-mark]. En lugar de
@@ -485,14 +478,13 @@ Listado 12-13 (omitimos los cuerpos de las funciones por brevedad). Ten en
 cuenta que esto no se compilará hasta que modifiquemos _src/main.rs_ en el
 Listado 12-14.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-13/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-13: Moviendo `Config` y `run` a
-_src/lib.rs_
+
 
 Hemos hecho uso de la palabra clave `pub`: en `Config`, en sus campos y en su
 método `build`, y en la función `run`. ¡Ahora tenemos un crate de biblioteca que
@@ -501,14 +493,13 @@ tiene una API pública que podemos probar!.
 Ahora necesitamos traer el código que movimos a _src/lib.rs_ al scope del crate
 binario en _src/main.rs_, como se muestra en el Listado 12-14.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-14/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-14: Usando el crate biblioteca `minigrep` en
-_src/main.rs_
+
 
 Agregamos una línea `use minigrep::Config` para traer el tipo `Config` desde el
 crate de biblioteca al scope del crate binario, y agregamos el prefijo
@@ -529,5 +520,5 @@ pruebas!
 [ch9-custom-types]: ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html#creacion-de-tipos-personalizados-para-validacion
 [ch9-error-guidelines]: ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html#pautas-para-el-manejo-de-errores
 [ch9-result]: ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.html
-[ch17]: ch17-00-oop.html
+[ch18]: ch18-00-oop.html
 [ch9-question-mark]: ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.html#un-atajo-para-propagar-errores-el-operador-
diff --git a/src/ch12-04-testing-the-librarys-functionality.md b/src/ch12-04-testing-the-librarys-functionality.md
index a6a2cea57..2ae181cca 100644
--- a/src/ch12-04-testing-the-librarys-functionality.md
+++ b/src/ch12-04-testing-the-librarys-functionality.md
@@ -38,14 +38,13 @@ función `search`: tomará una consulta y el texto a buscar, y devolverá solo l
 líneas del texto que contengan la consulta. El listado 12-15 muestra esta
 prueba, que aún no se compilará.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-15/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-15: Creando un test fallido para la función
-`search` que deseamos tener
+
 
 Este test busca el string `"duct"`. El texto que estamos buscando son tres
 líneas, solo una de las cuales contiene `"duct"` (Tenga en cuenta que la barra
@@ -62,14 +61,13 @@ un vector vacío, como se muestra en el listado 12-16. Luego, la prueba debería
 compilar y fallar porque un vector vacío no coincide con un vector que
 contiene la línea `"safe, fast, productive."`.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-16/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-16: Definiendo solo lo necesario de la función
-`search` para que nuestro test compile
+
 
 Observa que necesitamos definir un lifetime explícito `'a` en la firma de
 `search` y usar ese lifetime con el argumento `contents` y el valor de retorno.
@@ -120,11 +118,11 @@ Actualmente, nuestro test falla porque siempre devolvemos un vector vacío. Para
 solucionar eso e implementar `search`, nuestro programa debe seguir estos
 pasos:
 
-- Iterar a través de cada línea del contenido.
-- Compruebe si la línea contiene nuestro string de consulta.
-- Si es así, agréguelo a la lista de valores que estamos devolviendo.
-- Si no lo hace, no haga nada.
-- Devuelve la lista de resultados que coinciden.
+1. Iterar a través de cada línea del contenido.
+2. Compruebe si la línea contiene nuestro string de consulta.
+3. Si es así, agréguelo a la lista de valores que estamos devolviendo.
+4. Si no lo hace, no haga nada.
+5. Devuelve la lista de resultados que coinciden.
 
 Trabajaremos en cada paso, comenzando por iterar a través de las líneas.
 
@@ -134,14 +132,13 @@ Rust tiene un método útil para manejar la iteración línea por línea de stri
 convenientemente llamado `lines`, que funciona como se muestra en el listado
 12-17. Tenga en cuenta que esto aún no se compilará.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-17/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-17: Iterando a través de cada línea en
-`contents`
+
 
 El método `lines` devuelve un iterador. Hablaremos sobre los iteradores en
 profundidad en [Capítulo 13][ch13-iterators], pero recuerde que
@@ -157,14 +154,13 @@ que hace esto por nosotros. Agregue una llamada al método `contains` en la
 función `search`, como se muestra en el listado 12-18. Tenga en cuenta que esto
 aún no se compilará.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-18/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-18: Agregando funcionalidad para verificar si
-la línea contiene el string en `query`
+
 
 En este punto, estamos construyendo funcionalidad. Para que compile, debemos
 devolver un valor del cuerpo como indicamos en la firma de la función.
@@ -177,14 +173,13 @@ antes del bucle `for` y llamar al método `push` para almacenar una `line` en el
 vector. Después del bucle `for`, devolvemos el vector, como se muestra en el
 listado 12-19.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-19/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-19: Almacenando las líneas que coinciden para
-poder devolverlas
+
 
 Ahora la función `search` debería devolver solo las líneas que contienen
 `query`, y nuestro test debería pasar. Ejecutemos el test:
diff --git a/src/ch12-05-working-with-environment-variables.md b/src/ch12-05-working-with-environment-variables.md
index 17f7f2ccd..fa4c28cd7 100644
--- a/src/ch12-05-working-with-environment-variables.md
+++ b/src/ch12-05-working-with-environment-variables.md
@@ -19,21 +19,19 @@ renombraremos nuestro viejo test de `one_result` a `case_sensitive` para
 clarificar las diferencias entre los dos tests, como se muestra en el Listado
 12-20.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-20/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-20: Agregando un nuevo test fallido para la
-función insensible a mayúsculas y minúsculas que estamos a punto de 
-agregar
+
 
 Ten en cuenta que hemos editado el `contents` del viejo test también. Hemos
-agregado una nueva línea con el texto `"Duct tape."` usando una D mayúscula que
-no debería coincidir con la consulta `"duct"` cuando estamos buscando de manera
-sensible a mayúsculas y minúsculas. Cambiar el viejo test de esta manera ayuda
-a asegurar que no rompamos accidentalmente la funcionalidad de búsqueda
+agregado una nueva línea con el texto `"Duct tape."` usando una *D* mayúscula 
+que no debería coincidir con la consulta `"duct"` cuando estamos buscando de 
+manera sensible a mayúsculas y minúsculas. Cambiar el viejo test de esta manera 
+ayuda a asegurar que no rompamos accidentalmente la funcionalidad de búsqueda
 sensible a mayúsculas y minúsculas que ya hemos implementado. Este test debería
 pasar ahora y debería continuar pasando mientras trabajamos en la búsqueda
 insensible a mayúsculas y minúsculas.
@@ -41,7 +39,7 @@ insensible a mayúsculas y minúsculas.
 El nuevo test para la búsqueda insensible a mayúsculas y minúsculas usa `"rUsT"`
 como su consulta. En la función `search_case_insensitive` que estamos a punto
 de agregar, la consulta `"rUsT"` debería coincidir con la línea que contiene
-`"Rust:"` con una R mayúscula y coincidir con la línea `"Trust me."` aunque
+`"Rust:"` con una *R* mayúscula y coincidir con la línea `"Trust me."` aunque
 ambas tienen diferente capitalización que la consulta. Este es nuestro test
 fallido, y fallará al compilar porque aún no hemos definido la función
 `search_case_insensitive`. Siéntete libre de agregar una implementación
@@ -57,15 +55,13 @@ convertiremos a minúsculas la `query` y cada `line` para que no importe la
 mayúscula o minúscula de los argumentos de entrada, serán la misma mayúscula o
 minúscula cuando verifiquemos si la línea contiene la consulta.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-21/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-21: Definiendo la función 
-`search_case_insensitive` para convertir a minúsculas tanto la consulta como la
-línea antes de compararlas
+
 
 Primero, convertimos el string `query` a minúsculas y lo almacenamos en una
 variable sombreada con el mismo nombre. Llamar a `to_lowercase` en la consulta
@@ -116,14 +112,13 @@ usar eso para decidir si llamar a la función `search` o la función
 `search_case_insensitive`, como se muestra en el Listado 12-22. Esto aún no se
 compilará.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-22/src/lib.rs:there}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-22: Llamando a `search` o
-`search_case_insensitive` en función del valor de `config.ignore_case`
+
 
 Finalmente, necesitamos verificar la variable de entorno. Las funciones para
 trabajar con variables de entorno están en el módulo `env` en la biblioteca
@@ -132,16 +127,15 @@ estándar, así que traemos ese módulo al alcance en la parte superior de
 si se ha establecido algún valor para una variable de entorno llamada
 `IGNORE_CASE`, como se muestra en el Listado 12-23.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-23/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 12-23: Comprobando si existe algún valor en una 
-variable de entorno llamada `IGNORE_CASE`
+
 
-Aquí, creamos una nueva variable `ignore_case`. Para establecer su valor,
+Aquí, creamos una nueva variable, `ignore_case`. Para establecer su valor,
 llamamos a la función `env::var` y le pasamos el nombre de la variable de
 entorno `IGNORE_CASE`. La función `env::var` devuelve un `Result` que será la
 variante `Ok` exitosa que contiene el valor de la variable de entorno si la
@@ -163,14 +157,14 @@ que la función `run` pueda leer ese valor y decidir si llamar a la función
 
 ¡Probémoslo! Primero, ejecutemos el programa sin la variable de entorno
 establecida y con la consulta `to`, que debería coincidir con cualquier línea
-que contenga la palabra "to" en minúsculas:
+que contenga la palabra *to* en minúsculas:
 
 ```console
 {{#include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-23/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 ¡Parece que aún funciona! Ahora, ejecutemos el programa con `IGNORE_CASE`
-establecido en `1` pero con la misma consulta `to`.
+establecido en `1` pero con la misma consulta *to*.
 
 ```console
 $ export IGNORE_CASE=1; cargo run -- to poem.txt
@@ -189,7 +183,7 @@ shell. Puede desestablecerse con el comando `Remove-Item`:
 PS> Remove-Item Env:IGNORE_CASE
 ```
 
-Deberíamos obtener líneas que contengan "to" que podrían tener letras
+Deberíamos obtener líneas que contengan *to* que podrían tener letras
 mayúsculas:
 
  solo a ese tema. ¡Así que lo que aprendas
-aquí lo aplicarás nuevamente en el Capítulo 17!
+aquí lo aplicarás nuevamente en el Capítulo 18!
 
 ### Usando un `Box` para Almacenar Datos en el Heap
 
@@ -38,14 +38,13 @@ dentro de un `Box`.
 El Listado 15-1 muestra cómo usar un box para almacenar un valor `i32` en el
 heap:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-01/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 15-1: Almacenando un valor `i32` en el heap usando
-un box
+
 
 Declaramos una variable `b` para tener el valor de un `Box` que apunta al valor
 `5`, el cual está almacenado en el heap. Este programa imprimirá `b = 5`; en
@@ -112,14 +111,13 @@ El Listado 15-2 contiene una definición de enum para una cons list. Nota que
 este código no compilará aún porque el tipo `List` no tiene un tamaño conocido,
 lo cual demostraremos.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-02/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 15-2: El primer intento de definir un enum para
-representar una estructura de datos de lista de cons con valores `i32`
+
 
 > Nota: Estamos implementando una const list que solo contiene valores `i32` con
 > el propósito de este ejemplo. Podríamos haberla implementado usando genéricos,
@@ -129,14 +127,13 @@ representar una estructura de datos de lista de cons con valores `i32`
 Usando el tipo `List` para almacenar la lista `1, 2, 3` se vería como el código
 en el Listado 15-3:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-03/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 15-3: Usando el enum `List` para almacenar la
-lista `1, 2, 3`
+
 
 El primer valor `Cons` contiene `1` y otro valor `List`. Este valor `List` es
 otro valor `Cons` que contiene `2` y otro valor `List`. Este valor `List` es
@@ -146,12 +143,13 @@ otro valor `Cons` que contiene `3` y un valor `List`, que es finalmente es
 Si intentamos compilar el código en el Listado 15-3, obtendremos el error que
 se muestra en el Listado 15-4:
 
++
 ```console
 {{#include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-03/output.txt}}
 ```
 
-Listado 15-4: El error que obtenemos al intentar definir
-un enum recursivo
+
 
 El error muestra que este tipo “tiene un tamaño infinito”. La razón es que
 hemos definido `List` con una variante que es recursiva: contiene otro valor de
@@ -225,14 +223,13 @@ del otro.
 Podemos cambiar la definición del enum `List` en el Listado 15-2 y el uso de
 `List` en el Listado 15-3 al código del Listado 15-5, el cual compilará:
 
-Nombre de archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-05/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 15-5: Definición de `List` que utiliza `Box`
-para tener un tamaño conocido
+
 
 La variante `Cons` necesita el tamaño de un `i32` más el espacio para almacenar
 los datos del puntero. La variante `Nil` no almacena ningún valor, por lo que
@@ -252,7 +249,7 @@ capacidad especial, como veremos con los otros tipos de smart pointers.
 Tampoco tienen la sobrecarga de rendimiento que estas capacidades especiales
 incurran, por lo que pueden ser útiles en casos como la lista cons donde la
 indirección es la única característica que necesitamos. También veremos más
-casos de uso para los boxes en el Capítulo 17.
+casos de uso para los boxes en el Capítulo 18.
 
 El tipo `Box` es un tipo de puntero inteligente porque implementa el trait
 `Deref`, que permite que los valores de `Box` se traten como referencias
@@ -262,4 +259,4 @@ más importantes para la funcionalidad proporcionada por los otros tipos de
 smart pointers que discutiremos en el resto de este capítulo. Exploraremos estos
 dos traits en más detalle.
 
-[trait-objects]: ch17-02-trait-objects.html#usando-trait-objects-que-permiten-valores-de-diferentes-tipos
+[trait-objects]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html#usando-trait-objects-que-permiten-valores-de-diferentes-tipos
diff --git a/src/ch15-02-deref.md b/src/ch15-02-deref.md
index e2945c970..3a232beb8 100644
--- a/src/ch15-02-deref.md
+++ b/src/ch15-02-deref.md
@@ -31,14 +31,13 @@ puntero es como una flecha a un valor almacenado en otro lugar. En el Listado
 15-6, creamos una referencia a un valor `i32` y luego usamos el operador de
 desreferencia para seguir la referencia al valor:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-06/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-6: Utilizando el operador de dereferencia
-para seguir una referencia a un valor `i32`
+
 
 La variable `x` contiene un valor `i32` de `5`. Establecemos `y` igual a una
 referencia a `x`. Podemos afirmar que `x` es igual a `5`. Sin embargo, si
@@ -65,14 +64,13 @@ una referencia; el operador de desreferencia usado en el `Box` en el Listado
 15-7 funciona de la misma manera que el operador de desreferencia usado en la
 referencia en el Listado 15-6:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-07/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-7: Utilizando el operador de dereferencia
-en un `Box`
+
 
 La principal diferencia entre el Listado 15-7 y el Listado 15-6 es que aquí
 definimos `y` como una instancia de `Box` apuntando a una copia del valor de
@@ -94,13 +92,13 @@ por lo que el Listado 15-8 define un tipo `MyBox` de la misma manera.
 También definiremos una función `new` para que coincida con la función `new`
 definida en `Box`.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-08/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-8: Definiendo un tipo `MyBox`
+
 
 Definimos un struct llamado `MyBox` y declaramos un parámetro generic `T`,
 porque queremos que nuestro tipo contenga valores de cualquier tipo. El tipo
@@ -113,14 +111,13 @@ cambiarla para usar el tipo `MyBox` que hemos definido en lugar de `Box`.
 El código en el Listado 15-9 no se compilará porque Rust no sabe cómo
 desreferenciar `MyBox`.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-09/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-9: Intentando usar `MyBox` de la misma
-manera en que usamos referencias y `Box`
+
 
 Aquí está el error de compilación resultante:
 
@@ -142,18 +139,18 @@ estándar, requiere que implementemos un método llamado `deref` que tome `self`
 y devuelva una referencia al dato interno. El Listado 15-10 contiene una
 implementación de `Deref` para agregar a la definición de `MyBox`:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-10/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-10: Implementando `Deref` en `MyBox`
+
 
 La sintaxis `type Target = T;` define un tipo asociado que será utilizado por el
 trait `Deref`. Los tipos asociados son una forma ligeramente diferente de
 declarar un parámetro genérico, pero no necesitas preocuparte por ellos por
-ahora; los cubriremos con más detalle en el Capítulo 19.
+ahora; los cubriremos con más detalle en el Capítulo 20.
 
 Rellenamos el cuerpo del método `deref` con `&self.0` para que `deref` devuelva
 una referencia al valor al que queremos acceder con el operador `*`. Recordemos
@@ -217,28 +214,26 @@ en el Listado 15-8 y la implementación de `Deref` que agregamos en el Listado
 15-10. El Listado 15-11 muestra la definición de una función que tiene un
 parámetro de tipo string slice:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-11/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-11: Una función `hello` que tiene el parámetro
-`name` de tipo `&str`
+
 
 Llamamos a la función `hello` con un string slice como un argumento, como
 `hello("Rust");` por ejemplo. La coerción Deref hace posible llamar a `hello`
 con una referencia a un valor de tipo `MyBox`, como se muestra en el
 Listado 15-12:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-12/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-12: Llamando a `hello` con una referencia a un
-valor `MyBox`, lo cual funciona debido a la coerción deref
+
 
 Aquí estamos llamando a la función `hello` con el argumento `&m`, que es una
 referencia a un valor `MyBox`. Debido a que implementamos el trait
@@ -253,14 +248,13 @@ Si Rust no implementara la coerción Deref, tendríamos que escribir el código
 en el Listado 15-13 en lugar del código en el Listado 15-12 para llamar a
 `hello` con un valor de tipo `&MyBox`.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-13/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-13: El código que tendríamos que escribir si
-Rust no tuviera deref coerción
+
 
 El `(*m)` desreferencia el `MyBox` en un `String`. Luego, el `&` y
 `[..]` toman un string slice del `String` que es igual a todo el string para
diff --git a/src/ch15-03-drop.md b/src/ch15-03-drop.md
index bf458c6c2..26b05cf0f 100644
--- a/src/ch15-03-drop.md
+++ b/src/ch15-03-drop.md
@@ -32,14 +32,13 @@ funcionalidad personalizada es que imprimirá `Dropping CustomSmartPointer!`
 cuando la instancia sale del scope, para mostrar cuándo Rust ejecuta la
 función `drop`.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-14/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-14: Un struct `CustomSmartPointer` que
-implementa el trait `Drop` donde colocaríamos nuestro código de limpieza
+
 
 El trait `Drop` está incluido en el prelude, así que no necesitamos traerlo al
 scope. Implementamos el trait `Drop` en `CustomSmartPointer` y proveemos una
@@ -84,16 +83,15 @@ Si intentamos llamar manualmente al método `drop` del trait `Drop` modificando
 la función `main` del Listado 15-14, como se muestra en el Listado 15-15, 
 obtendremos un error del compilador:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-15/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-15: Intento de llamar manualmente al método
-`drop` del trait `Drop` para limpiar de forma anticipada
+
 
-When we try to compile this code, we’ll get this error:
+Cuando nosotros intentemos compilar este código, obtendremos el siguiente error:
 
 ```console
 {{#include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-15/output.txt}}
@@ -119,14 +117,13 @@ La llamamos pasando como argumento el valor que queremos forzar a dropear. La
 función está en el prelude, así que podemos modificar `main` en el Listado
 15-15 para llamar a la función `drop`, como se muestra en el Listado 15-16:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-16/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-16: Llamando a `std::mem::drop` para eliminar
-explícitamente un valor antes de que salga del scope
+
 
 Ejecutar este código imprimirá lo siguiente:
 
diff --git a/src/ch15-04-rc.md b/src/ch15-04-rc.md
index ace373db1..364952572 100644
--- a/src/ch15-04-rc.md
+++ b/src/ch15-04-rc.md
@@ -51,15 +51,13 @@ ambas listas compartirán la primera lista que contiene 5 y 10.
 Intentar implementar este escenario usando nuestra definición de `List` con
 `Box` no funcionará, como se muestra en el Listado 15-17:
 
-Nombre de archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-17/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 15-17: Demostrando que no se nos permite tener dos
-listas que usen `Box` y traten de compartir ownership de una tercera
-lista
+
 
 Cuando intentamos compilar este código, obtenemos este error:
 
@@ -88,14 +86,13 @@ tres. Cada vez que llamamos a `Rc::clone`, el conteo de referencias a los datos
 dentro del `Rc` aumentará, y los datos no serán limpiados a menos que no
 haya referencias a él.
 
-Nombre de archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-18/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listado 15-18: Una definición de `List` que utiliza
-`Rc`
+
 
 Necesitamos agregar una declaración `use` para traer `Rc` al scope porque no
 está en el [prelude][prelude]. En `main`, creamos la lista que contiene 5 y 10 y la
@@ -125,13 +122,13 @@ En el Listado 15-19, cambiaremos `main` para que tenga un scope interno alrededo
 de la lista `c`; luego podemos ver cómo el conteo de referencias cambia cuando
 `c` sale del scope.
 
-Nombre de archivo: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-19/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listado 15-19: Imprimiendo el conteo de referencias
+
 
 En este punto del programa donde cambia el recuento de referencias, imprimimos
 el recuento de referencias utilizando la función `Rc::strong_count`. Esta
diff --git a/src/ch15-05-interior-mutability.md b/src/ch15-05-interior-mutability.md
index 48919358f..d5021e9f6 100644
--- a/src/ch15-05-interior-mutability.md
+++ b/src/ch15-05-interior-mutability.md
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ código `unsafe` dentro de una estructura de datos para flexibilizar las reglas
 habituales de Rust que rigen la mutabilidad y el borrowing. El código unsafe
 indica al compilador que estamos verificando las reglas manualmente en lugar de
 confiar en que el compilador las verifique por nosotros; discutiremos el código
-unsafe con más detalle en el Capítulo 19.
+unsafe con más detalle en el Capítulo 20.
 
 Podemos utilizar tipos que utilizan el patrón de mutabilidad interna solo cuando
 podemos asegurar que las reglas de borrowing se seguirán en tiempo de ejecución,
@@ -142,15 +142,13 @@ necesita saber ese detalle. Todo lo que necesita es algo que implemente un
 trait que proporcionaremos llamado `Messenger`. El listado 15-20 muestra el
 código de la biblioteca:
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-20/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-20: Una biblioteca para realizar un seguimiento
-de qué tan cerca está un valor a su valor máximo y emitir advertencias
-cuando el valor alcanza ciertos niveles.
+
 
 Una parte importante de este código es el trait `Messenger`, que tiene un método
 llamado `send` que toma una referencia inmutable a `self` y el texto del
@@ -173,14 +171,13 @@ mensajes que esperamos. El listado 15-21 muestra un intento de implementar un
 objeto simulado para hacer precisamente eso, pero el borrow checker
 no lo permite:
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-21/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-21: Un intento de implementar un `MockMessenger`
-que no es permitido por el borrow checker
+
 
 Este código de test define un struct `MockMessenger` que tiene un campo
 `sent_messages` que es una `Vec` de `String` valores. Definimos una función
@@ -217,14 +214,13 @@ Almacenaremos los `sent_messages` dentro de un `RefCell`, y luego el método
 `send` podrá modificar `sent_messages` para almacenar los mensajes que hemos
 visto. El listado 15-22 muestra cómo se ve eso:
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-22/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-22: Usando `RefCell` para mutar un valor
-interno mientras el valor externo se considera inmutable.
+
 
 El campo `sent_messages` ahora es de tipo `RefCell>` en lugar de
 `Vec`. En la función `new`, creamos una nueva instancia de
@@ -267,14 +263,13 @@ la implementación de `send` en el listado 15-22. Estamos tratando
 deliberadamente de crear dos borrowing mutables activos para el mismo scope
 para ilustrar que `RefCell` nos impide hacer esto en tiempo de ejecución.
 
-Filename: src/lib.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,panics
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-23/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-23: Creando dos referencias mutables en el
-mismo scope para ver que `RefCell` lanzará un panic
+
 
 Creamos una variable `one_borrow` para el smart pointer `RefMut` devuelto
 desde `borrow_mut`. Luego creamos otro borrowing mutable de la misma manera en
@@ -319,14 +314,13 @@ ninguno de los valores en la lista una vez que los hemos creado. Agreguemos
 El listado 15-24 muestra que al usar un `RefCell` en la definición de `Cons`,
 podemos modificar el valor almacenado en todas las listas:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-24/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-24: Usando `Rc>` para crear una
-`List` que podemos modificar.
+
 
 Creamos un valor que es una instancia de `Rc>` y lo almacenamos en
 una variable llamada `value` para que podamos acceder a él directamente más
diff --git a/src/ch15-06-reference-cycles.md b/src/ch15-06-reference-cycles.md
index 5bc6db9b7..3de1cce2a 100644
--- a/src/ch15-06-reference-cycles.md
+++ b/src/ch15-06-reference-cycles.md
@@ -15,15 +15,13 @@ Vamos a ver cómo podría ocurrir una referencia circular y cómo prevenirla,
 comenzando con la definición del enum `List` y un método `tail` en el Listado
 15-25:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-25/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-25: Una definición de lista enlazada 
-que contiene un `RefCell` para poder modificar a que se refiere una
-variante `Cons`
+
 
 Estamos usando otra variación de la definición de `List` del Listado 15-5. El
 segundo elemento en la variante `Cons` es ahora `RefCell>`, lo que
@@ -40,14 +38,13 @@ apunte a `b`, creando un ciclo de referencia. Hay declaraciones `println!` a lo
 largo del camino para mostrar cuáles son los recuentos de referencia en varios
 puntos de este proceso.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-26/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-26: Creando un ciclo de referencia de dos 
-valores `List` que se apuntan mutuamente.
+
 
 Creamos una instancia `Rc` que contiene un valor `List` en la variable
 `a` con una lista inicial de `5, Nil`. Luego creamos una instancia `Rc`
@@ -169,14 +166,13 @@ instancia `Node` llamada `leaf` con el valor 3 y sin hijos, y otra instancia
 llamada `branch` con el valor 5 y `leaf` como uno de sus hijos, como se muestra
 en el Listado 15-26:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-27/src/main.rs:there}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-27: Creando un nodo `leaf` sin hijos y un nodo
-`branch` con `leaf` como uno de sus hijos
+
 
 Clonamos el `Rc` en `leaf` y lo almacenamos en `branch`, lo que significa
 que el `Node` en `leaf` ahora tiene dos propietarios: `leaf` y `branch`. Podemos
@@ -214,14 +210,13 @@ Un nodo podrá referirse a su nodo padre, pero no será propietario de él. En
 el Listado 15-28, actualizamos `main` para usar esta nueva definición, por lo
 que el nodo `leaf` tendrá una forma de referirse a su nodo padre, `branch`:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-28/src/main.rs:there}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-28: Un nodo `leaf` con una referencia débil a 
-su nodo padre `branch`
+
 
 La creación del nodo `leaf` se ve similar al Listado 15-27 con la excepción del
 campo `parent`: `leaf` comienza sin un padre, por lo que creamos una nueva
@@ -269,14 +264,13 @@ de referencia `strong_count` y `weak_count`. Al hacerlo, podemos ver qué
 sucede cuando se crea `branch` y luego se elimina cuando sale del scope. Las
 modificaciones se muestran en el Listado 15-29:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-29/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 15-29: Creando `branch` en un scope interno y
-examinando los recuentos de referencias fuertes y débiles
+
 
 Después de crear `leaf`, el `Rc` tiene un `strong_count` de 1 y un
 `weak_count` de 0. En el scope interno, creamos `branch` y lo asociamos con
diff --git a/src/ch16-01-threads.md b/src/ch16-01-threads.md
index 927cb0ff1..f3bccb5a7 100644
--- a/src/ch16-01-threads.md
+++ b/src/ch16-01-threads.md
@@ -31,7 +31,9 @@ muchos sistemas operativos proporcionan una API que el lenguaje puede llamar
 para crear nuevos hilos. La biblioteca estándar de Rust utiliza un modelo _1:1_
 de implementación de hilos, mediante el cual un programa utiliza un hilo del
 sistema operativo por un hilo de lenguaje. Hay crates que implementan otros
-modelos de enhebrado que hacen diferentes compensaciones al modelo 1:1.
+modelos de enhebrado que hacen diferentes compensaciones al modelo 1:1. 
+(El sistema async de Rust, que veremos en el próximo capítulo, también 
+proporciona otro enfoque para la concurrencia).
 
 ### Creando un Nuevo Hilo con `spawn`
 
@@ -40,14 +42,13 @@ closure (hablamos sobre closures en el Capítulo 13) que contiene el código que
 queremos ejecutar en el nuevo hilo. El ejemplo en el Listado 16-1 imprime
 algunos textos desde un hilo principal y otros textos desde un nuevo hilo:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-01/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 16-1: Creando un nuevo hilo para imprimir una cosa
-mientras el hilo principal imprime algo más
+
 
 Nota que cuando el hilo principal de un programa Rust se completa, todos los
 hilos creados se apagan, independientemente de si han terminado de ejecutarse o
@@ -97,14 +98,13 @@ su hilo termine. El Listado 16-2 muestra cómo usar el `JoinHandle` del hilo que
 creamos en el Listado 16-1 y llamar a `join` para asegurarnos de que el hilo
 creado termine antes de que `main` salga:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-02/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 16-2: Guardando un `JoinHandle` devuelto por
-`thread::spawn` para garantizar que el hilo se ejecute hasta completarse
+
 
 Llamar a `join` en el handle bloquea el hilo que está actualmente en ejecución
 hasta que el hilo representado por el handle termine. Bloquear un hilo significa
@@ -138,12 +138,14 @@ llamada a `handle.join()` y no termina hasta que el hilo creado haya terminado.
 Pero veamos que sucede cuando movemos la llamada a `handle.join()` antes del
 bucle `for` en `main`, como esto:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/no-listing-01-join-too-early/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
+
+
 El hilo principal ahora espera a que el hilo creado termine antes de comenzar su
 bucle `for`, para que el output no se intercale más. La salida ahora se verá
 así:
@@ -187,14 +189,13 @@ del hilo creado debe capturar los valores que necesita. El Listado 16-3 muestra
 un intento de crear un vector en el hilo principal y usarlo en el hilo creado.
 Sin embargo, esto aún no funcionará, como verás en un momento.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-03/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 16-3: Intentando usar un vector creado por el hilo
-principal en otro hilo
+
 
 El closure usa `v`, por lo que capturará `v` y lo hará parte del entorno del
 closure. Debido a que `thread::spawn` ejecuta este closure en un nuevo hilo,
@@ -213,14 +214,13 @@ que no sabe si la referencia a `v` siempre será válida.
 El Listado 16-4 proporciona un escenario que es más probable que tenga una
 referencia a `v` que no sea válida:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-04/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 16-4: Un hilo con un closure que intenta capturar
-una referencia a `v` desde un hilo principal que deja de tener `v`
+
 
 Si Rust nos permitiera ejecutar este código, existe la posibilidad de que el
 hilo creado se ponga inmediatamente en segundo plano sin ejecutarse en absoluto.
@@ -248,14 +248,14 @@ ownership de los valores que está usando en lugar de permitir que Rust infiera
 que debería pedir prestado los valores. La modificación al Listado 16-3 que se
 muestra en el Listado 16-5 se compilará y ejecutará como lo pretendemos:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
++
 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-05/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 16-5: Usando la keyword `move` para forzar a un
-closure a tomar ownership de los valores que utiliza
+
 
 Podríamos sentir la tentación de intentar lo mismo para arreglar el código en el
 Listado 16-4 donde el hilo principal llamó a `drop` usando un closure `move`.
diff --git a/src/ch16-02-message-passing.md b/src/ch16-02-message-passing.md
index 9d1f216ea..e21678dd1 100644
--- a/src/ch16-02-message-passing.md
+++ b/src/ch16-02-message-passing.md
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ abreviaturas `tx` y `rx` se usan tradicionalmente en muchos campos para
 *transmisor* y *receptor* respectivamente, por lo que nombramos nuestras
 variables de esa manera para indicar cada extremo. Estamos usando una
 sentencia `let` con un patrón que deconstruye las tuplas; discutiremos el uso
-de patrones en las sentencias `let` y la deconstrucción en el Capítulo 18. Por
+de patrones en las sentencias `let` y la deconstrucción en el Capítulo 19. Por
 ahora, sepa que usar una sentencia `let` de esta manera es un enfoque
 conveniente para extraer las piezas de la tupla devuelta por `mpsc::channel`.
 
@@ -69,14 +69,13 @@ para que el hilo generado se comunique con el hilo principal, como se muestra
 en el Listado 16-7. Esto es como poner un patito de goma en el río aguas arriba
 o enviar un mensaje de chat de un hilo a otro.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-07/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 16-7: Moviendo `tx` a un hilo generado y enviar
-“hi”
+
 
 Nuevamente, estamos usando `thread::spawn` para crear un nuevo hilo y luego
 usando `move` para mover `tx` al cierre para que el hilo generado posea `tx`.
@@ -93,14 +92,13 @@ En el Listado 16-8, recibiremos el valor enviado en el hilo principal. Esto es
 como recibir el patito de goma en el río aguas abajo o recibir un mensaje de
 chat.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-08/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 16-8: Recibiendo el valor “hi” en el hilo thread
-e imprimiéndolo
+
 
 El receptor tiene dos métodos útiles: `recv` y `try_recv`. Estamos usando
 `recv`, abreviatura de *receive* (recibir), que bloqueará la ejecución del
@@ -145,14 +143,13 @@ ownership funcionan juntos para evitar problemas: intentaremos usar un valor
 compilar el código en el Listado 16-9 para ver por qué este código no está
 permitido:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-09/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 16-9: Attempting to use `val` after we’ve sent it
-down the channel
+
 
 Aquí, intentamos imprimir `val` después de haberlo enviado por el canal a
 través de `tx.send`. Permitir esto sería una mala idea: una vez que el valor
@@ -181,14 +178,13 @@ demostrarán que el código en el Listado 16-8 se está ejecutando
 concurrentemente: el hilo generado ahora enviará varios mensajes y se
 pausará durante un segundo entre cada mensaje.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-10/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 16-10: Enviando múltiples mensajes y pausando
-entre cada uno
+
 
 Esta vez, el hilo generado tiene un vector de strings que queremos enviar al
 hilo principal. Iteramos sobre ellos, enviando cada uno individualmente, y
@@ -225,14 +221,13 @@ en uso y expandamos el código en el Listado 16-10 para crear múltiples hilos
 que envíen valores al mismo receptor. Podemos hacerlo clonando el transmisor,
 como se muestra en el Listado 16-11:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,noplayground
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-11/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Listing 16-11: Envío de múltiples mensajes de múltiples
-productores
+
 
 Esta vez, antes de crear el primer hilo generado, llamamos a `clone` en el
 transmisor, lo que nos dará un nuevo transmisor que podemos pasar al primer
diff --git a/src/ch16-03-shared-state.md b/src/ch16-03-shared-state.md
index eae0ae652..d7b21dfc1 100644
--- a/src/ch16-03-shared-state.md
+++ b/src/ch16-03-shared-state.md
@@ -56,14 +56,13 @@ desbloquear incorrectamente.
 Como un ejemplo de como usar un mutex, comencemos usando un mutex en un
 contexto de un solo hilo, como se muestra en el Listado 16-12:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-12/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 16-12: Explorando la API de `Mutex` en un
-contexto de un solo hilo para simplificar
+
 
 Como con muchos tipos, creamos un `Mutex` usando la función asociada `new`.
 Para acceder a los datos dentro del mutex, usamos el método `lock` para
@@ -103,14 +102,13 @@ Activaremos 10 hilos y haremos que cada uno incremente un valor de contador en
 16-13 tendrá un error del compilador, y usaremos ese error para aprender más
 sobre el uso de `Mutex` y cómo Rust nos ayuda a usarlo correctamente.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-13/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 16-13: Diez hilos cada uno incrementa un contador
-custodiado por un `Mutex`
+
 
 Creamos una variable `counter` para contener un `i32` dentro de un `Mutex`,
 como hicimos en el Listado 16-12. A continuación, creamos 10 hilos iterando
@@ -144,14 +142,13 @@ Hagamos lo mismo aquí y veamos qué sucede. Envolveremos el `Mutex` en
 `Rc` en el Listado 16-14 y clonaremos el `Rc` antes de mover el
 ownership al hilo.
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-14/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 16-14: Intentando usar `Rc` para permitir
-múltiples hilos para poseer `Mutex`
+
 
 Una vez más, compilamos y obtenemos... ¡diferentes errores! El compilador nos
 está enseñando mucho.
@@ -201,14 +198,13 @@ arreglamos nuestro programa cambiando la línea `use`, la llamada a `new` y la
 llamada a `clone`. El código en el Listado 16-15 finalmente se compilará y
 ejecutará:
 
-Filename: src/main.rs
+ 
 ```rust
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-15/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-Listing 16-15: Usando un `Arc` para envolver `Mutex`
-para poder compartir el ownership a través de múltiples hilos
+
 
 Este código imprimirá lo siguiente:
 
diff --git a/src/ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md b/src/ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md
index 87e55de8b..4294fa48c 100644
--- a/src/ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md
+++ b/src/ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ error `the trait Send is not implemented for Rc>`. Cuando cambiamos a
 
 Cualquier tipo compuesto enteramente de tipos `Send` se marca automáticamente
 como `Send` también. Casi todos los tipos primitivos son `Send`, aparte de los
-punteros sin procesar, que discutiremos en el Capítulo 19.
+punteros sin procesar, que discutiremos en el Capítulo 20.
 
 ### Permitiendo el acceso desde múltiples hilos con `Sync`
 
@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ implementar. Son útiles para hacer cumplir invariantes relacionados con la
 concurrencia.
 
 Implementar manualmente estos traits implica implementar código inseguro de
-Rust. Hablaremos sobre el uso de código inseguro de Rust en el Capítulo 19; por
+Rust. Hablaremos sobre el uso de código inseguro de Rust en el Capítulo 20; por
 ahora, la información importante es que la construcción de nuevos tipos
 concurrentes que no están compuestos de partes `Send` y `Sync` requiere un
 pensamiento cuidadoso para mantener las garantías de seguridad. [“The
@@ -66,9 +66,10 @@ mantenerlas.
 
 ## Resumen
 
-No es la última vez que verás la concurrencia en este libro: el proyecto del
-Capítulo 20 usará los conceptos de este capítulo en una situación más realista
-que los ejemplos más pequeños que se discuten aquí.
+No es la última vez que verás la concurrencia en este libro: todo el siguiente 
+capitulo esta enfocado en programación asincrona, y el proyecto del Capítulo 21 
+usará los conceptos de este capítulo en una situación más realista que los 
+ejemplos más pequeños que se discuten aquí.
 
 Como se mencionó anteriormente, debido a que muy poco de cómo Rust maneja la
 concurrencia es parte del lenguaje, muchas soluciones de concurrencia se
diff --git a/src/ch17-00-async-await.md b/src/ch17-00-async-await.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..1149b676e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/ch17-00-async-await.md
@@ -0,0 +1,164 @@
+## Async y Await
+
+Muchas de las operaciones que pedimos a la computadora realizar pueden tardar un 
+tiempo en completarse. Por ejemplo, si utilizas un editor de video para crear un 
+video de una celebración familiar, exportarlo podría llevar desde unos minutos 
+hasta horas. De manera similar, descargar un video compartido por alguien de tu 
+familia podría tomar mucho tiempo. Sería ideal poder hacer algo más mientras 
+esperamos que esos procesos prolongados se completen.
+
+La exportación de video utilizará toda la potencia de CPU y GPU que pueda. Si 
+solo tuvieras un núcleo de CPU y tu sistema operativo nunca interrumpiera esa 
+exportación hasta que se complete, no podrías hacer nada más en tu computadora 
+mientras se ejecuta. Eso sería una experiencia bastante frustrante. En cambio, 
+el sistema operativo de tu computadora puede — ¡y lo hace! — interrumpir 
+invisiblemente la exportación con la suficiente frecuencia para permitirte 
+realizar otras tareas mientras tanto.
+
+La descarga de archivos es diferente. No consume mucho tiempo de CPU. En su 
+lugar, la CPU necesita esperar a que los datos lleguen desde la red. Aunque 
+puedes comenzar a leer los datos una vez que parte de ellos están presentes, 
+puede llevar tiempo que el resto llegue. Incluso cuando todos los datos están 
+presentes, un video puede ser bastante grande, por lo que podría tomar algo de 
+tiempo cargarlo por completo. Quizás solo tome uno o dos segundos, pero eso es 
+muchísimo tiempo para un procesador moderno, que puede realizar miles de 
+millones de operaciones por segundo. Sería ideal poder usar la CPU para otras 
+tareas mientras esperamos que la llamada a la red se complete. Así que, 
+nuevamente, el sistema operativo interrumpirá invisiblemente tu programa para 
+que otras cosas puedan ocurrir mientras la operación de red sigue en curso.
+
+> Nota: La exportación de video es el tipo de operación que a menudo se describe 
+> como “limitada por la CPU” o “limitada por el cálculo” (*CPU-bound* o 
+> *compute-bound*). Está limitada por la velocidad con la que la computadora 
+> puede procesar datos dentro de la *CPU* o la *GPU*, y cuánto de esa velocidad 
+> puede usar. La descarga de video es el tipo de operación que se describe 
+> comúnmente como “limitada por IO” (*IO-bound*), porque está restringida por la 
+> velocidad de entrada y salida de la computadora. Solo puede ir tan rápido como 
+> los datos puedan transmitirse a través de la red.
+
+En ambos ejemplos, las interrupciones invisibles del sistema operativo 
+proporcionan una forma de concurrencia. Sin embargo, esa concurrencia solo 
+ocurre a nivel de todo un programa: el sistema operativo interrumpe un programa 
+para permitir que otros programas realicen trabajo. En muchos casos, como 
+entendemos nuestros programas a un nivel mucho más granular que el sistema 
+operativo, podemos detectar muchas oportunidades de concurrencia que el sistema 
+operativo no puede ver.
+
+Por ejemplo, si estamos creando una herramienta para gestionar descargas de 
+archivos, deberíamos ser capaces de escribir nuestro programa de manera que 
+iniciar una descarga no bloquee la interfaz de usuario, y los usuarios puedan 
+comenzar varias descargas al mismo tiempo. Sin embargo, muchas APIs del sistema 
+operativo para interactuar con la red son *bloqueantes*. Es decir, estas APIs 
+bloquean el progreso del programa hasta que los datos con los que están 
+trabajando estén completamente listos.
+
+> Nota: ¡Así es como funcionan *la mayoría* de las llamadas a funciones, si lo 
+piensas bien! Sin embargo, normalmente reservamos el término “bloqueante” para 
+llamadas a funciones que interactúan con archivos, la red u otros recursos de la 
+computadora, porque en esos casos un programa individual podría beneficiarse de 
+que la operación no sea *bloqueante*.
+
+Podríamos evitar bloquear nuestro hilo principal creando un hilo dedicado para 
+descargar cada archivo. Sin embargo, eventualmente encontraríamos que el 
+sobrecosto de esos hilos es un problema. También sería más conveniente si la 
+llamada no fuera bloqueante desde el principio. Por último, pero no menos 
+importante, sería mejor si pudiéramos escribir en el mismo estilo directo que 
+usamos en el código bloqueante. Algo similar a esto:
+
+```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
+let data = fetch_data_from(url).await;
+println!("{data}");
+```
+
+Eso es exactamente lo que la abstracción de Rust nos ofrece. Antes de ver como 
+funciona esto en la práctica, debemos hacer una breve pausa para entender la 
+diferencia entre paralisimos y concurrencia.
+
+### Paralelismo y Concurrencia
+
+En el capitulo anterior, tratamos la concurrencia y el paralelismo como 
+conceptos mayormente intercambiales. Ahora necesitamos distinguirlos con más 
+precisión porque la diferencia se hará más evidente a medida que comencemos a 
+trabajar.
+
+Considera las diferentes maneras en que un equipo podría dividir el trabajo en 
+un proyecto de software. Podríamos asignar múltiples tareas a una sola persona, 
+o podríamos asignar una tarea por miembro del equipo, o podríamos usar una 
+combinación de ambos enfoques.
+
+Cuando una persona trabaja en varias tareas diferentes antes de completar alguna 
+de ellas, esto es *concurrencia*. Tal vez tienes dos proyectos diferentes 
+abiertos en tu computadora, y cuando te aburres o te atascas en uno, cambias al 
+otro. Eres solo una persona, por lo que no puedes avanzar en ambas tareas al 
+mismo tiempo exacto, pero puedes hacer varias cosas a la vez, progresando en 
+múltiples tareas al cambiar entre ellas.
+
+

+
+Flujo de trabajo concurrente
+
+
Figura 17-1: Un flujo de trabajo concurrente, cambiando entre la Tarea A y la Tarea B.

+
+

+
+Cuando acuerdas dividir un grupo de tareas entre las personas del equipo, con
+cada persona tomando una tarea y trabajando en ella sola, esto es *paralelismo*.
+Cada persona en el equipo puede avanzar al mismo tiempo. 
+
+

+
+Concurrent work flow
+
+Flujo de trabajo paralelo
+
+
Figura 17-2: Un flujo de trabajo paralelo, donde el trabajo se realiza en la Tarea A y la Tarea B de forma independiente.

+
+

+
+Con ambas situaciones, es posible que debas coordinar entre diferentes tareas.
+Quizás *pensaste* que la tarea en la que una persona estaba trabajando era
+totalmente independiente del trabajo de todos los demás, pero en realidad
+necesita algo terminado por otra persona en el equipo. Alguno de los trabajos
+podría hacerse en paralelo, pero en realidad, algo de eso era *serial*: solo
+podría ocurrir en serie, una cosa tras otra, como en la Figura 17-3.
+
+

+
+Concurrent work flow
+
+
Figura 17-3: Un flujo de trabajo parcialmente paralelo, donde el trabajo se realiza en la Tarea A y la Tarea B de forma independiente hasta que la tarea A3 está bloqueada en los resultados de la tarea B3.

+
+

+
+Así mismo, puedes darte cuenta de que una de tus propias tareas depende de otra
+de tus tareas. Ahora tu trabajo concurrente también se ha vuelto serial.
+
+El paralelismo y la concurrencia también pueden intersectarse entre sí. Si
+descubres que un colega está atascado hasta que termines una de tus tareas,
+probablemente centrarás todos tus esfuerzos en esa tarea para “desbloquear” a tu
+colega. Tú y tu compañero de trabajo ya no pueden trabajar en paralelo, y tú
+tampoco puedes trabajar en forma concurrente en tus propias tareas.
+
+Las mismas dinámicas básicas entran en juego con el software y el hardware. En
+una máquina con un solo núcleo de CPU, la CPU solo puede hacer una operación a 
+la vez, pero aún puede trabajar de manera concurrente. Utilizando herramientas
+como hilos, procesos y async, la computadora puede pausar una actividad y 
+cambiar a otras antes de volver eventualmente a esa primera actividad 
+nuevamente. En una máquina con múltiples núcleos de CPU, también puede hacer
+trabajo en paralelo. Un núcleo puede estar haciendo una cosa mientras que otro
+núcleo hace algo completamente no relacionado, y eso realmente sucede al mismo
+tiempo.
+
+Cuando trabajamos con async en Rust, siempre estamos tratando con concurrencia.
+Dependiendo del hardware, el sistema operativo y el tiempo de ejecución async
+que estamos utilizando — ¡más sobre los tiempos de ejecución async en breve! —
+esa concurrencia también puede usar paralelismo bajo el capó.
+
+Ahora, ¡sumérgete en cómo funciona la programación async en Rust! En el resto de
+este capítulo, vamos a:
+
+* ver cómo usar la sintaxis `async` y `await` de Rust
+* explorar cómo usar el modelo async para resolver algunos de los mismos
+  desafíos que vimos en el Capítulo 16
+* ver cómo el multiprocesamiento y async proporcionan soluciones 
+  complementarias, que incluso puedes usarlas juntas en muchos casos
diff --git a/src/ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md b/src/ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..af2ac8594
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md
@@ -0,0 +1,414 @@
+## Futures y la sintaxis `async`
+
+Los elementos clave de la programación asíncrona en Rust son los *futures* y las
+palabras clave `async` y `await`.
+
+Un *future* es un valor que puede no estar listo ahora, pero que estará listo en
+algún momento en el futuro. (Este mismo concepto aparece en muchos lenguajes,
+a veces bajo otros nombres como “tarea” o “promesa”.) Rust proporciona un trait
+`Future` como un bloque de construcción para que diferentes operaciones 
+asíncronas puedan implementarse con diferentes estructuras de datos, pero con
+una interfaz común. En Rust, decimos que los tipos que implementan el trait
+`Future` son futuros. Cada tipo que implementa `Future` contiene su propia
+información sobre el progreso que se ha hecho y lo que significa estar "listo".
+
+La palabra clave `async` se puede aplicar a bloques y funciones para especificar
+que pueden ser interrumpidos y reanudados. Dentro de un bloque asíncrono o una
+función asíncrona, puedes usar la palabra clave `await` para esperar a que un
+futuro esté listo, pudiendo *esperar un futuro*. Cada lugar donde esperas un
+futuro dentro de un bloque o función asíncrona es un lugar donde ese bloque o
+función asíncrona puede ser pausado y reanudado. El proceso de comprobar con un
+futuro para ver si su valor está disponible se llama *polling*.
+
+Algunos otros lenguajes también utilizan las palabras clave `async` y `await`
+para la programación asíncrona. Si estás familiarizado con esos lenguajes, puede
+que notes algunas diferencias significativas en cómo Rust hace las cosas,
+incluyendo cómo maneja la sintaxis. ¡Por una buena razón, como veremos!
+
+La mayor parte del tiempo al escribir Rust asíncrono, usamos las palabras clave
+`async` y `await`. Rust las compila en código equivalente utilizando el trait
+`Future`, al igual que compila los bucles `for` en código equivalente utilizando
+el trait `Iterator`. Sin embargo, como Rust proporciona el trait `Future`, puedes
+implementarlo para tus propios tipos de datos cuando sea necesario. Muchas de las
+funciones que veremos a lo largo de este capítulo devuelven tipos con sus propias
+implementaciones de `Future`. Volveremos a la definición del trait al final del
+capítulo y profundizaremos más en cómo funciona, pero este es suficiente detalle
+para seguir avanzando.
+
+Todo esto puede parecer un poco abstracto. Escribamos nuestro primer programa
+asíncrono: un pequeño web scraper. Pasaremos dos URLs desde la línea de 
+comandos, obtendremos ambos de forma concurrente y devolveremos el resultado
+de aquel que termine primero. Este ejemplo tendrá un poco de nueva sintaxis,
+pero no te preocupes. Explicaremos todo lo que necesitas saber a medida que
+avanzamos.
+
+### Nuestro primer programa asíncrono
+
+Para mantener este capítulo centrado en aprender lo asíncrono, en lugar de
+manejar partes del ecosistema, hemos creado el crate `trpl` (`trpl` es la
+abreviatura de “The Rust Programming Language”). Re-exporta todos los tipos,
+traits y funciones que necesitarás, principalmente de los crates 
+[`futures`][futures-crate] y [`tokio`][tokio].
+
+- El crate `futures` es un hogar oficial para la experimentación de Rust para
+  el código asíncrono, y es en realidad donde el tipo `Future` fue diseñado
+  originalmente.
+
+- Tokio es el runtime asíncrono más utilizado en Rust hoy en día, especialmente
+  (¡pero no solo!) para aplicaciones web. Hay otros runtimes geniales por ahí,
+  y pueden ser más adecuados para tus propósitos. Usamos Tokio bajo el capó
+  para `trpl` porque está bien probado y ampliamente utilizado.
+
+En algunos casos, `trpl` también renombra o envuelve las APIs originales para
+permitirnos mantenernos enfocados en los detalles relevantes para este capítulo.
+Si quieres entender qué hace el crate, te animamos a que eches un vistazo a
+[su código fuente][crate-source]. Podrás ver de qué crate proviene cada
+re-exportación, y hemos dejado extensos comentarios explicando qué hace el 
+crate.
+
+Crea un nuevo proyecto binario llamado `hello-async` y añade el crate `trpl`
+como dependencia:
+
+```console
+$ cargo new hello-async
+$ cd hello-async
+$ cargo add trpl
+```
+
+Ahora podemos usar las diversas piezas proporcionadas por `trpl` para escribir
+nuestro primer programa asíncrono. Construiremos una pequeña herramienta de
+línea de comandos que obtiene dos páginas web, extrae el elemento `` de
+cada una e imprime el título de aquella que termine todo el proceso primero.
+
+Empecemos escribiendo una función que toma una URL de página como parámetro,
+hace una petición a ella y devuelve el texto del elemento título:
+
+<Listing number="17-1" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Definiendo una función asíncrona para obtener el elemento título de una página HTML">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-01/src/main.rs:all}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+En el Listado 17-1, definimos una función llamada `page_title`, y la marcamos
+con la palabra clave `async`. Luego usamos la función `trpl::get` para obtener
+cualquier URL que se pase, y esperamos la respuesta usando la palabra clave
+`await`. Luego obtenemos el texto de la respuesta llamando a su método `text`,
+y una vez más lo esperamos con la palabra clave `await`. Ambos pasos son
+asíncronos. Para `get`, necesitamos esperar a que el servidor envíe la primera
+parte de su respuesta, que incluirá cabeceras HTTP, cookies, etc. Esa parte de
+la respuesta puede entregarse por separado del cuerpo de la petición. 
+Especialmente si el cuerpo es muy grande, puede llevar algo de tiempo que todo
+llegue. Por lo tanto, tenemos que esperar a que *toda* la respuesta llegue, por
+lo que el método `text` también es asíncrono.
+
+Tenemos que esperar explícitamente ambos de estos futuros, porque los futuros
+en Rust son *perezosos*: no hacen nada hasta que les pides con `await`. (De
+hecho, Rust mostrará una advertencia del compilador si no usas un futuro.) Esto
+debería recordarte nuestra discusión de los iteradores 
+[en el Capítulo 13][iterators-lazy].
+Los iteradores no hacen nada a menos que llames a su método `next`—ya sea
+directamente, o usando bucles `for` o métodos como `map` que usan `next` bajo
+el capó. Con los futuros, se aplica la misma idea básica: no hacen nada a menos
+que les pidas explícitamente. Esta estrategia de ejecución perezosa permite a 
+Rust evitar ejecutar código asíncrono hasta que realmente sea necesario.
+
+> Nota: Esto es diferente del comportamiento que vimos al usar `thread::spawn` 
+> en el capítulo anterior, donde la closure que pasamos a otro hilo comenzó a
+> ejecutarse inmediatamente. ¡También es diferente de cómo muchos otros 
+> lenguajes abordan lo asíncrono! Pero es importante para Rust. Veremos por qué
+> es así más adelante.
+
+Una vez que tenemos `response_text`, podemos analizarlo en una instancia del
+tipo `Html` usando `Html::parse`. En lugar de una cadena en bruto, ahora tenemos
+un tipo de datos con el que podemos trabajar con el HTML como una estructura de
+datos más rica. En particular, podemos usar el método `select_first` para
+encontrar la primera instancia de un selector CSS dado. Pasando la cadena
+`"title"`, obtendremos el primer elemento `<title>` en el documento, si lo hay.
+Dado que puede que no haya ningún elemento coincidente, `select_first` devuelve
+un `Option<ElementRef>`. Finalmente, usamos el método `Option::map`, que nos
+permite trabajar con el elemento en el `Option` si está presente, y no hacer
+nada si no lo está. (También podríamos usar una expresión `match` aquí, pero
+`map` es más idiomático.) En el cuerpo de la función que proporcionamos a `map`,
+llamamos a `inner_html` en el `title_element` para obtener su contenido, que es
+un `String`. Cuando todo está dicho y hecho, tenemos un `Option<String>`.
+
+Observa que la palabra clave `await` de Rust va después de la expresión que
+estás esperando, no antes. Es decir, es una *palabra clave posfija*. Esto puede
+ser diferente de lo que estás acostumbrado si has usado asíncrono en otros
+lenguajes. Rust eligió esto porque hace que las cadenas de métodos sean mucho
+más agradables de trabajar. Como resultado, podemos cambiar el cuerpo de
+`page_url_for` para encadenar las llamadas a las funciones `trpl::get` y `text`
+juntas con `await` entre ellas, como se muestra en el Listado 17-2:
+
+<Listing number="17-2" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Encadenando con la palabra clave `await`">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-02/src/main.rs:chaining}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+¡Con eso, hemos escrito con éxito nuestra primera función asíncrona! Antes de
+añadir algo de código en `main` para llamarla, hablemos un poco más sobre lo
+que hemos escrito y lo que significa.
+
+Cuando Rust ve un bloque marcado con la palabra clave `async`, lo compila en un
+tipo de datos único y anónimo que implementa el trait `Future`. Cuando Rust ve
+una función marcada con `async`, la compila en una función no asíncrona cuyo
+cuerpo es un bloque asíncrono. El tipo de retorno de una función asíncrona es
+el tipo del tipo de datos anónimo que el compilador crea para ese bloque 
+asíncrono.
+
+Por lo tanto, escribir `async fn` es equivalente a escribir una función que
+devuelve un *futuro* del tipo de retorno. Cuando el compilador ve una definición
+de función como la `async fn page_title` en el Listado 17-1, es equivalente a
+una función no asíncrona definida de la siguiente manera:
+
+```rust
+# extern crate trpl; // requerido para mdbook test
+use std::future::Future;
+use trpl::Html;
+
+fn page_title(url: &str) -> impl Future<Output = Option<String>> + '_ {
+    async move {
+        let text = trpl::get(url).await.text().await;
+        Html::parse(&text)
+            .select_first("title")
+            .map(|title| title.inner_html())
+    }
+}
+```
+
+Veamos cada parte de la versión transformada:
+
+* Utiliza la sintaxis `impl Trait` que discutimos en la sección [“Traits como
+  parámetros”][impl-trait] en el Capítulo 10.
+* El trait devuelto es un `Future`, con un tipo asociado de `Output`. Observa
+  que el tipo `Output` es `Option<String>`, que es el mismo que el tipo de
+  retorno original de la versión `async fn` de `page_title`.
+* Todo el código llamado en el cuerpo de la función original está envuelto en
+  un bloque `async move`. Recuerda que los bloques son expresiones. Todo este
+  bloque es la expresión devuelta por la función.
+* Este bloque asíncrono produce un valor con el tipo `Option<String>`, como se
+  describió anteriormente. Ese valor coincide con el tipo `Output` en el tipo de
+  retorno. Esto es igual que otros bloques que has visto.
+* El nuevo cuerpo de la función es un bloque `async move` debido a cómo usa el
+  parámetro `url`. (Hablaremos mucho más sobre `async` vs. `async move` más
+  adelante en el capítulo.)
+* La nueva versión de la función tiene un tipo de duración que no hemos visto
+  antes en el tipo de salida: `'_`. Debido a que la función devuelve un `Future`
+  que se refiere a una referencia —en este caso, la referencia del parámetro
+  `url`— necesitamos decirle a Rust que queremos que esa referencia esté
+  incluida. No tenemos que nombrar la duración aquí, porque Rust es lo
+  suficientemente inteligente como para saber que solo hay una referencia que
+  podría estar involucrada, pero *sí* tenemos que ser explícitos en que el
+  `Future` resultante está vinculado por esa duración.
+
+Ahora podemos llamar a `page_title` en `main`. Para empezar, solo obtendremos
+el título de una sola página. En el Listado 17-3, seguimos el mismo patrón que
+usamos para obtener los argumentos de la línea de comandos en el Capítulo 12.
+Luego pasamos la primera URL a `page_title`, y esperamos el resultado. Dado que
+el valor producido por el futuro es un `Option<String>`, usamos una expresión
+`match` para imprimir diferentes mensajes para tener en cuenta si la página
+tenía un `<title>`.
+
+<Listing number="17-3" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Llamando a la función `page_title` desde `main` con un argumento proporcionado por el usuario">
+
+```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-03/src/main.rs:main}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+Desafortunadamente, esto no compila. El único lugar donde podemos usar la
+palabra clave `await` es en funciones o bloques asíncronos, y Rust no nos
+permitirá marcar la función especial `main` como `async`.
+
+<!-- manual-regeneration
+cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-03
+cargo build
+copy just the compiler error
+-->
+
+```text
+error[E0752]: `main` function is not allowed to be `async`
+ --> src/main.rs:6:1
+  |
+6 | async fn main() {
+  | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `main` function is not allowed to be `async`
+```
+
+La razón por la que `main` no puede ser marcada como `async` es que el código
+asíncrono necesita un *runtime*: un crate de Rust que gestiona los detalles de
+la ejecución de código asíncrono. La función `main` de un programa puede
+*inicializar* un runtime, pero no es un runtime *en sí mismo*. (Veremos más
+sobre por qué esto es un poco más adelante.) Cada programa de Rust que ejecuta
+código asíncrono tiene al menos un lugar donde configura un runtime y ejecuta
+los futuros.
+
+La mayoría de los lenguajes que admiten asíncrono incluyen un runtime con el
+lenguaje. Rust no lo hace. En su lugar, hay muchos runtimes asíncronos
+disponibles, cada uno de los cuales hace diferentes compensaciones adecuadas
+para el caso de uso al que se dirigen. Por ejemplo, un servidor web de alto
+rendimiento con muchos núcleos de CPU y una gran cantidad de RAM tiene
+necesidades muy diferentes a las de un microcontrolador con un solo núcleo, una
+pequeña cantidad de RAM y sin capacidad para hacer asignaciones en el montón. 
+Los crates que proporcionan esos runtimes también suelen suministrar versiones
+asíncronas de funcionalidades comunes como la E/S de archivos o de red.
+
+Aquí, y a lo largo del resto de este capítulo, usaremos la función `run` del
+crate `trpl`, que toma un futuro como argumento y lo ejecuta hasta su
+finalización. Detrás de escena, llamar a `run` configura un runtime para usarlo
+para ejecutar el futuro pasado. Una vez que el futuro se completa, `run`
+devuelve cualquier valor que el futuro haya producido.
+
+Podríamos pasar el futuro devuelto por `page_title` directamente a `run`. Una
+vez completado, podríamos hacer una coincidencia en el `Option<String>`
+resultante, de la misma manera que intentamos hacer en el Listado 17-3. Sin
+embargo, para la mayoría de los ejemplos en el capítulo (¡y la mayoría del 
+código asíncrono en el mundo real!), haremos más que una sola llamada a función
+asíncrona, por lo que en su lugar pasaremos un bloque `async` y esperaremos
+explícitamente el resultado de llamar a `page_title`, como en el Listado 17-4.
+
+<Listing number="17-4" caption="Esperando un bloque asíncrono con `trpl::run`" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+<!-- should_panic,noplayground because mdbook test does not pass args -->
+
+```rust,should_panic,noplayground
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04/src/main.rs:run}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+Cuando ejecutamos esto, obtenemos el comportamiento que podríamos haber esperado
+inicialmente:
+
+<!-- manual-regeneration
+cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04
+cargo build # skip all the build noise
+cargo run https://www.rust-lang.org
+# copy the output here
+-->
+
+```console
+$ cargo run -- https://www.rust-lang.org
+    Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.05s
+     Running `target/debug/async_await 'https://www.rust-lang.org'`
+The title for https://www.rust-lang.org was
+            Rust Programming Language
+```
+
+¡Uf! ¡Finalmente tenemos algo de código asíncrono funcional! Ahora compila, y
+podemos ejecutarlo. Antes de añadir código para competir dos sitios entre sí,
+volvamos brevemente nuestra atención a cómo funcionan los futuros.
+
+Cada *punto de espera* — es decir, cada lugar donde el código usa la palabra
+clave `await` — representa un lugar donde el control se devuelve al runtime. 
+Para que esto funcione, Rust necesita hacer un seguimiento del estado 
+involucrado en el bloque asíncrono, para que el runtime pueda iniciar otro 
+trabajo y luego volver cuando esté listo para intentar avanzar en este de nuevo. 
+Esta es una máquina de estados invisible, como si escribieras un enum de esta 
+manera para guardar el estado actual en cada punto de `await`:
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/src/lib.rs:enum}}
+```
+
+Escribir el código para la transición entre cada estado a mano sería tedioso y
+propenso a errores, especialmente al añadir más funcionalidad y más estados al
+código más adelante. En su lugar, el compilador de Rust crea y gestiona las
+estructuras de datos de la máquina de estados para el código asíncrono
+automáticamente. Si te lo estás preguntando: sí, las reglas normales de
+préstamo y propiedad en torno a las estructuras de datos se aplican. 
+Afortunadamente, el compilador también se encarga de comprobarlas por nosotros, 
+y tiene buenos mensajes de error. ¡Trabajaremos a través de algunos de esos más 
+tarde en el capítulo!
+
+En última instancia, algo tiene que ejecutar esa máquina de estados. Eso algo es
+un runtime. (Es por eso que a veces puedes encontrarte con referencias a
+*ejecutores* al investigar runtimes: un ejecutor es la parte de un runtime
+responsable de ejecutar el código asíncrono.)
+
+Ahora podemos entender por qué el compilador nos impidió hacer que `main` en sí
+fuera una función asíncrona en el Listado 17-3. Si `main` fuera una función
+asíncrona, algo más tendría que gestionar la máquina de estados para cualquier
+futuro que `main` devolviera, ¡pero `main` es el punto de inicio del programa!
+En su lugar, llamamos a la función `trpl::run` en `main`, que configura un
+runtime y ejecuta el futuro devuelto por el bloque `async` hasta que devuelva
+`Ready`.
+
+> Nota: algunos runtimes proporcionan macros para que *puedas* escribir una
+> función `main` asíncrona. Esos macros reescriben `async fn main() { ... }`
+> para ser un `fn main` normal que hace lo mismo que hicimos a mano en el
+> Listado 17-5: llamar a una función que ejecuta un futuro hasta su finalización
+> de la misma manera que `trpl::run` hace.
+
+Pongamos estas piezas juntas y veamos cómo podemos escribir código concurrente,
+llamando a `page_title` con dos URLs diferentes pasadas desde la línea de
+comandos y compitiéndolas.
+
+<Listing number="17-5" caption="" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+<!-- should_panic,noplayground because mdbook does not pass args -->
+
+```rust,should_panic,noplayground
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-05/src/main.rs:all}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+En el Listado 17-5, comenzamos llamando a `page_title` para cada una de las
+URLs proporcionadas por el usuario. Guardamos los futuros producidos al llamar a
+`page_title` como `title_fut_1` y `title_fut_2`. Recuerda, estos todavía no
+hacen nada, porque los futuros son perezosos, y aún no los hemos esperado. Luego
+pasamos los futuros a `trpl::race`, que devuelve un valor para indicar cuál de
+los futuros pasados a él termina primero.
+
+> Nota: Bajo el capó, `race` está construido sobre una función más general,
+> `select`, que encontrarás más a menudo en el código de Rust del mundo real.
+> Una función `select` puede hacer muchas cosas que la función `trpl::race` no
+> puede, pero también tiene cierta complejidad adicional que podemos omitir por
+> ahora.
+
+Cualquiera de los futuros puede “ganar” legítimamente, por lo que no tiene
+sentido devolver un `Result`. En su lugar, `race` devuelve un tipo que no hemos
+visto antes, `trpl::Either`. El tipo `Either` es algo similar a un `Result`, en
+que tiene dos casos. A diferencia de `Result`, sin embargo, no hay noción de
+éxito o fracaso integrada en `Either`. En su lugar, usa `Left` y `Right` para
+indicar “uno u otro”.
+
+```rust
+enum Either<A, B> {
+    Left(A),
+    Right(B),
+}
+```
+
+La función `race` devuelve `Left` si el primer argumento termina primero, con la
+salida de ese futuro, y `Right` con la salida del segundo argumento futuro si
+*ese* termina primero. Esto coincide con el orden en que aparecen los argumentos
+cuando se llama a la función: el primer argumento está a la izquierda del
+segundo argumento.
+
+También actualizamos `page_title` para devolver la misma URL pasada. De esa
+manera, si la página que se devuelve primero no tiene un `<title>` que podamos
+resolver, aún podemos imprimir un mensaje significativo. Con esa información
+disponible, terminamos actualizando nuestra salida de `println!` para indicar
+tanto qué URL terminó primero como cuál fue el `<title>` de la página web en
+esa URL, si lo hay.
+
+¡Has construido un pequeño scrapper web funcional ahora! Elige un par de URLs y
+ejecuta la herramienta de línea de comandos. Puedes descubrir que algunos sitios
+son confiablemente más rápidos que otros, mientras que en otros casos qué sitio
+“gana” varía de una ejecución a otra. Más importante aún, has aprendido los
+conceptos básicos de trabajar con futuros, por lo que ahora podemos profundizar
+en aún más de las cosas que podemos hacer con asíncrono.
+
+[impl-trait]: ch10-02-traits.html#traits-as-parameters
+[iterators-lazy]: ch13-02-iterators.html
+<!-- TODO: map source link version to version of Rust? -->
+[crate-source]: https://github.com/rust-lang/book/tree/main/packages/trpl
+[futures-crate]: https://crates.io/crates/futures
+[tokio]: https://tokio.rs
diff --git a/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md b/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..22557d1b7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md
@@ -0,0 +1,384 @@
+## Concurrency With Async
+
+In this section, we’ll apply async to some of the same concurrency challenges
+we tackled with threads in chapter 16. Because we already talked about a lot of
+the key ideas there, in this section we’ll focus on what’s different between
+threads and futures.
+
+In many cases, the APIs for working with concurrency using async are very
+similar to those for using threads. In other cases, they end up being shaped
+quite differently. Even when the APIs *look* similar between threads and async,
+they often have different behavior—and they nearly always have different
+performance characteristics.
+
+### Counting
+
+The first task we tackled in Chapter 16 was counting up on two separate threads.
+Let’s do the same using async. The `trpl` crate supplies a `spawn_task` function
+which looks very similar to the `thread::spawn` API, and a `sleep` function
+which is an async version of the `thread::sleep` API. We can use these together
+to implement the same counting example as with threads, in Listing 17-6.
+
+<Listing number="17-6" caption="Using `spawn_task` to count with two" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-06/src/main.rs:all}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+As our starting point, we set up our `main` function with `trpl::run`, so
+that our top-level function can be async.
+
+> Note: From this point forward in the chapter, every example will include this
+> exact same wrapping code with `trpl::run` in `main`, so we’ll often skip it
+> just as we do with `main`. Don’t forget to include it in your code!
+
+Then we write two loops within that block, each with a `trpl::sleep` call in it,
+which waits for half a second (500 milliseconds) before sending the next
+message. We put one loop in the body of a `trpl::spawn_task` and the other in a
+top-level `for` loop. We also add an `await` after the `sleep` calls.
+
+This does something similar to the thread-based implementation—including the
+fact that you may see the messages appear in a different order in your own
+terminal when you run it.
+
+<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant;
+the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than
+changes in the compiler -->
+
+```text
+hi number 1 from the second task!
+hi number 1 from the first task!
+hi number 2 from the first task!
+hi number 2 from the second task!
+hi number 3 from the first task!
+hi number 3 from the second task!
+hi number 4 from the first task!
+hi number 4 from the second task!
+hi number 5 from the first task!
+```
+
+This version stops as soon as the for loop in the body of the main async block
+finishes, because the task spawned by `spawn_task` is shut down when the main
+function ends. If you want to run all the way to the completion of the task, you
+will need to use a join handle to wait for the first task to complete. With
+threads, we used the `join` method to “block” until the thread was done running.
+In Listing 17-7, we can use `await` to do the same thing, because the task
+handle itself is a future. Its `Output` type is a `Result`, so we also unwrap it
+after awaiting it.
+
+<Listing number="17-7" caption="Using `await` with a join handle to run a task to completion" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-07/src/main.rs:handle}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+This updated version runs till *both* loops finish.
+
+<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant;
+the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than
+changes in the compiler -->
+
+```text
+hi number 1 from the second task!
+hi number 1 from the first task!
+hi number 2 from the first task!
+hi number 2 from the second task!
+hi number 3 from the first task!
+hi number 3 from the second task!
+hi number 4 from the first task!
+hi number 4 from the second task!
+hi number 5 from the first task!
+hi number 6 from the first task!
+hi number 7 from the first task!
+hi number 8 from the first task!
+hi number 9 from the first task!
+```
+
+So far, it looks like async and threads give us the same basic outcomes, just
+with different syntax: using `await` instead of calling `join` on the join
+handle, and awaiting the `sleep` calls.
+
+The bigger difference is that we didn’t need to spawn another operating system
+thread to do this. In fact, we don’t even need to spawn a task here. Because
+async blocks compile to anonymous futures, we can put each loop in an async
+block and have the runtime run them both to completion using the `trpl::join`
+function.
+
+In Chapter 16, we showed how to use the `join` method on the `JoinHandle` type
+returned when you call `std::thread::spawn`. The `trpl::join` function is
+similar, but for futures. When you give it two futures, it produces a single new
+future whose output is a tuple with the output of each of the futures you passed
+in once *both* complete. Thus, in Listing 17-8, we use `trpl::join` to wait for
+both `fut1` and `fut2` to finish. We do *not* await `fut1` and `fut2`, but
+instead the new future produced by `trpl::join`. We ignore the output, because
+it’s just a tuple with two unit values in it.
+
+<Listing number="17-8" caption="Using `trpl::join` to await two anonymous futures" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-08/src/main.rs:join}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+When we run this, we see both futures run to completion:
+
+<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant;
+the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than
+changes in the compiler -->
+
+```text
+hi number 1 from the first task!
+hi number 1 from the second task!
+hi number 2 from the first task!
+hi number 2 from the second task!
+hi number 3 from the first task!
+hi number 3 from the second task!
+hi number 4 from the first task!
+hi number 4 from the second task!
+hi number 5 from the first task!
+hi number 6 from the first task!
+hi number 7 from the first task!
+hi number 8 from the first task!
+hi number 9 from the first task!
+```
+
+Here, you’ll see the exact same order every time, which is very different from
+what we saw with threads. That is because the `trpl::join` function is *fair*,
+meaning it checks each future equally often, alternating between them, and never
+lets one race ahead if the other is ready. With threads, the operating system
+decides which thread to check and how long to let it run. With async Rust, the
+runtime decides which task to check. (In practice, the details get complicated
+because an async runtime might use operating system threads under the hood as
+part of how it manages concurrency, so guaranteeing fairness can be more work
+for a runtime—but it’s still possible!) Runtimes don’t have to guarantee
+fairness for any given operation, and runtimes often offer different APIs to let
+you choose whether you want fairness or not.
+
+Try some of these different variations on awaiting the futures and see what they
+do:
+
+* Remove the async block from around either or both of the loops.
+* Await each async block immediately after defining it.
+* Wrap only the first loop in an async block, and await the resulting future
+  after the body of second loop.
+
+For an extra challenge, see if you can figure out what the output will be in
+each case *before* running the code!
+
+### Message Passing
+
+Sharing data between futures will also be familiar: we’ll use message passing
+again, but this with async versions of the types and functions. We’ll take a
+slightly different path than we did in Chapter 16, to illustrate some of the key
+differences between thread-based and futures-based concurrency. In Listing 17-9,
+we’ll begin with just a single async block—*not* spawning a separate task as
+we spawned a separate thread.
+
+<Listing number="17-9" caption="Creating an async channel and assigning the two halves to `tx` and `rx`" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-09/src/main.rs:channel}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+Here, we use `trpl::channel`, an async version of the multiple-producer,
+single-consumer channel API we used with threads back in Chapter 16. The async
+version of the API is only a little different from the thread-based version: it
+uses a mutable rather than an immutable receiver `rx`, and its `recv` method
+produces a future we need to await rather than producing the value directly. Now
+we can send messages from the sender to the receiver. Notice that we don’t have
+to spawn a separate thread or even a task; we merely need to await the `rx.recv`
+call.
+
+The synchronous `Receiver::recv` method in `std::mpsc::channel` blocks until
+it receives a message. The `trpl::Receiver::recv` method does not, because it
+is async. Instead of blocking, it hands control back to the runtime until either
+a message is received or the send side of the channel closes. By contrast, we
+don’t await the `send` call, because it doesn’t block. It doesn’t need to,
+because the channel we’re sending it into is unbounded.
+
+> Note: Because all of this async code runs in an async block in a `trpl::run`
+> call, everything within it can avoid blocking. However, the code *outside* it
+> will block on the `run` function returning. That is the whole point of the
+> `trpl::run` function: it lets you *choose* where to block on some set of async
+> code, and thus where to transition between sync and async code. In most async
+> runtimes, `run` is actually named `block_on` for exactly this reason.
+
+Notice two things about this example: First, the message will arrive right away!
+Second, although we use a future here, there’s no concurrency yet. Everything
+in the listing happens in sequence, just as it would if there were no futures
+involved.
+
+Let’s address the first part by sending a series of messages, and sleep in
+between them, as shown in Listing 17-10:
+
+<!-- We cannot test this one because it never stops! -->
+
+<Listing number="17-10" caption="Sending and receiving multiple messages over the async channel and sleeping with an `await` between each message" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust,ignore
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-10/src/main.rs:many-messages}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+In addition to sending the messages, we need to receive them. In this case, we
+could do that manually, by just doing `rx.recv().await` four times, because we
+know how many messages are coming in. In the real world, though, we’ll
+generally be waiting on some *unknown* number of messages. In that case, we need
+to keep waiting until we determine that there are no more messages.
+
+In Listing 16-10, we used a `for` loop to process all the items received from a
+synchronous channel. However, Rust doesn’t yet have a way to write a `for` loop
+over an *asynchronous* series of items. Instead, we need to use a new kind of
+loop we haven’t seen before, the `while let` conditional loop. A `while let`
+loop is the loop version of the `if let` construct we saw back in Chapter 6. The
+loop will continue executing as long as the pattern it specifies continues to
+match the value.
+
+The `rx.recv` call produces a `Future`, which we await. The runtime will pause
+the `Future` until it is ready. Once a message arrives, the future will resolve
+to `Some(message)`, as many times as a message arrives. When the channel closes,
+regardless of whether *any*  messages have arrived, the future will instead
+resolve to `None` to indicate that there are no more values, and we should stop
+polling—that is, stop awaiting.
+
+The `while let` loop pulls all of this together. If the result of calling
+`rx.recv().await` is `Some(message)`, we get access to the message and we can
+use it in the loop body, just as we could with `if let`. If the result is
+`None`, the loop ends. Every time the loop completes, it hits the await point
+again, so the runtime pauses it again until another message arrives.
+
+The code now successfully sends and receives all of the messages. Unfortunately,
+there are still a couple problems. For one thing, the messages do not arrive at
+half-second intervals. They arrive all at once, two seconds (2,000 milliseconds)
+after we start the program. For another, this program also never exits! Instead,
+it waits forever for new messages. You will need to shut it down using <span
+class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>.
+
+Let’s start by understanding why the messages all come in at once after the full
+delay, rather than coming in with delays in between each one. Within a given
+async block, the order that `await` keywords appear in the code is also the
+order they happen when running the program.
+
+There’s only one async block in Listing 17-10, so everything in it runs
+linearly. There’s still no concurrency. All the `tx.send` calls happen,
+interspersed with all of the `trpl::sleep` calls and their associated await
+points. Only then does the `while let` loop get to go through any of the `await`
+points on the `recv` calls.
+
+To get the behavior we want, where the sleep delay happens between receiving
+each message, we need to put the `tx` and `rx` operations in their own async
+blocks. Then the runtime can execute each of them separately using `trpl::join`,
+just as in the counting example. Once again, we await the result of calling
+`trpl::join`, not the individual futures. If we awaited the individual futures
+in sequence, we would just end up back in a sequential flow—exactly what we’re
+trying *not* to do.
+
+<!-- We cannot test this one because it never stops! -->
+
+<Listing number="17-11" caption="Separating `send` and `recv` into their own `async` blocks and awaiting the futures for those blocks" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust,ignore
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-11/src/main.rs:futures}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+With the updated code in Listing 17-11, the messages get printed at
+500-millisecond intervals, rather than all in a rush after two seconds.
+
+The program still never exits, though, because of the way `while let` loop
+interacts with `trpl::join`:
+
+* The future returned from `trpl::join` only completes once *both* futures
+  passed to it have completed.
+* The `tx` future completes once it finishes sleeping after sending the last
+  message in `vals`.
+* The `rx` future won’t complete until the `while let` loop ends.
+* The `while let` loop won’t end until awaiting `rx.recv` produces `None`.
+* Awaiting `rx.recv` will only return `None` once the other end of the channel
+  is closed.
+* The channel will only close if we call `rx.close` or when the sender side,
+  `tx`, is dropped.
+* We don’t call `rx.close` anywhere, and `tx` won’t be dropped until the
+  outermost async block passed to `trpl::run` ends.
+* The block can’t end because it is blocked on `trpl::join` completing, which
+  takes us back to the top of this list!
+
+We could manually close `rx` by calling `rx.close` somewhere, but that doesn’t
+make much sense. Stopping after handling some arbitrary number of messages would
+make the program shut down, but we could miss messages. We need some other way
+to make sure that `tx` gets dropped *before* the end of the function.
+
+Right now, the async block where we send the messages only borrows `tx` because
+sending a message doesn’t require ownership, but if we could move `tx` into
+that async block, it would be dropped once that block ends. In Chapter 13, we
+learned how to use the `move` keyword with closures, and in Chapter 16, we saw
+that we often need to move data into closures when working with threads. The
+same basic dynamics apply to async blocks, so the `move` keyword works with
+async blocks just as it does with closures.
+
+In Listing 17-12, we change the async block for sending messages from a plain
+`async` block to an `async move` block. When we run *this* version of the code,
+it shuts down gracefully after the last message is sent and received.
+
+<Listing number="17-12" caption="A working example of sending and receiving messages between futures which correctly shuts down when complete" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-12/src/main.rs:with-move}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+This async channel is also a multiple-producer channel, so we can call `clone`
+on `tx` if we want to send messages from multiple futures. In Listing 17-13, we
+clone `tx`, creating `tx1` outside the first async block. We move `tx1` into
+that block just as we did before with `tx`. Then, later, we move the original
+`tx` into a *new* async block, where we send more messages on a slightly slower
+delay. We happen to put this new async block after the async block for receiving
+messages, but it could go before it just as well. The key is the order of the
+futures are awaited in, not the order they are created in.
+
+Both of the async blocks for sending messages need to be `async move` blocks, so
+that both `tx` and `tx1` get dropped when those blocks finish. Otherwise we’ll
+end up back in the same infinite loop we started out in. Finally, we switch from
+`trpl::join` to `trpl::join3` to handle the additional future.
+
+<Listing number="17-13" caption="Using multiple producers with async blocks" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-13/src/main.rs:here}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+Now we see all the messages from both sending futures. Because the sending
+futures use slightly different delays after sending, the messages are also
+received at those different intervals.
+
+<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant;
+the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than
+changes in the compiler -->
+
+```text
+received 'hi'
+received 'more'
+received 'from'
+received 'the'
+received 'messages'
+received 'future'
+received 'for'
+received 'you'
+```
+
+This is a good start, but it limits us to just a handful of futures: two with
+`join`, or three with `join3`. Let’s see how we might work with more futures.
+
+[streams]: ch17-05-streams.html
diff --git a/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md b/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..cab96d1f1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md
@@ -0,0 +1,629 @@
+## Working With Any Number of Futures
+
+When we switched from using two futures to three in the previous section, we
+also had to switch from using `join` to using `join3`. It would be annoying to
+have to call a different function every time we changed the number of futures we
+wanted to join. Happily, we have a macro form of `join` to which we can pass an
+arbitrary number of arguments. It also handles awaiting the futures itself.
+Thus, we could rewrite the code from Listing 17-13 to use `join!` instead of
+`join3`, as in Listing 17-14:
+
+<Listing number="17-14" caption="Using `join!` to wait for multiple futures" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs:here}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+This is definitely a nice improvement over needing to swap between `join` and
+`join3` and `join4` and so on! However, even this macro form only works when we
+know the number of futures ahead of time. In real-world Rust, though, pushing
+futures into a collection and then waiting on some or all the futures in that
+collection to complete is a common pattern.
+
+To check all the futures in some collection, we’ll need to iterate over and
+join on *all* of them. The `trpl::join_all` function accepts any type which
+implements the `Iterator` trait, which we learned about back in Chapter 13, so
+it seems like just the ticket. Let’s try putting our futures in a vector, and
+replace `join!` with `join_all`.
+
+<Listing  number="17-15" caption="Storing anonymous futures in a vector and calling `join_all`">
+
+```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs:here}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+Unfortunately, this doesn’t compile. Instead, we get this error:
+
+<!-- manual-regeneration
+cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/
+cargo build
+copy just the compiler error
+-->
+
+
+```text
+error[E0308]: mismatched types
+  --> src/main.rs:45:37
+   |
+10 |         let tx1_fut = async move {
+   |                       ---------- the expected `async` block
+...
+24 |         let rx_fut = async {
+   |                      ----- the found `async` block
+...
+45 |         let futures = vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut];
+   |                                     ^^^^^^ expected `async` block, found a different `async` block
+   |
+   = note: expected `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}`
+              found `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:24:22: 24:27}`
+   = note: no two async blocks, even if identical, have the same type
+   = help: consider pinning your async block and casting it to a trait object
+```
+
+This might be surprising. After all, none of them return anything, so each
+block produces a `Future<Output = ()>`. However, `Future` is a trait, not a
+concrete type. The concrete types are the individual data structures generated
+by the compiler for async blocks. You can’t put two different hand-written
+structs in a `Vec`, and the same thing applies to the different structs
+generated by the compiler.
+
+To make this work, we need to use *trait objects*, just as we did in [“Returning
+Errors from the run function”][dyn] in Chapter 12. (We’ll cover trait objects
+in detail in Chapter 18.) Using trait objects lets us treat each of the
+anonymous futures produced by these types as the same type, because all of them
+implement the `Future` trait.
+
+> Note: In Chapter 8, we discussed another way to include multiple types in a
+> `Vec`: using an enum to represent each of the different types which can
+> appear in the vector. We can’t do that here, though. For one thing, we have
+> no way to name the different types, because they are anonymous. For another,
+> the reason we reached for a vector and `join_all` in the first place was to be
+> able to work with a dynamic collection of futures where we don’t know what
+> they will all be until runtime.
+
+We start by wrapping each of the futures in the `vec!` in a `Box::new`, as shown
+in Listing 17-16.
+
+<Listing number="17-16" caption="Trying to use `Box::new` to align the types of the futures in a `Vec`" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/src/main.rs:here}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+Unfortunately, this still doesn’t compile. In fact, we have the same basic
+error we did before, but we get one for both the second and third `Box::new`
+calls, and we also get new errors referring to the `Unpin` trait. We will come
+back to the `Unpin` errors in a moment. First, let’s fix the type errors on the
+`Box::new` calls, by explicitly annotating the type of the `futures` variable:
+
+<Listing number="17-17" caption="Fixing the rest of the type mismatch errors by using an explicit type declaration" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs:here}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+The type we had to write here is a little involved, so let’s walk through it:
+
+* The innermost type is the future itself. We note explicitly that the output of
+  the future is the unit type `()` by writing `Future<Output = ()>`.
+* Then we annotate the trait with `dyn` to mark it as dynamic.
+* The entire trait reference is wrapped in a `Box`.
+* Finally, we state explicitly that `futures` is a `Vec` containing these items.
+
+That already made a big difference. Now when we run the compiler, we only have
+the errors mentioning `Unpin`. Although there are three of them, notice that
+each is very similar in its contents.
+
+<!-- manual-regeneration
+cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16
+cargo build
+# copy *only* the errors
+# fix the paths
+-->
+
+```text
+error[E0308]: mismatched types
+   --> src/main.rs:46:46
+    |
+10  |         let tx1_fut = async move {
+    |                       ---------- the expected `async` block
+...
+24  |         let rx_fut = async {
+    |                      ----- the found `async` block
+...
+46  |             vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)];
+    |                                     -------- ^^^^^^ expected `async` block, found a different `async` block
+    |                                     |
+    |                                     arguments to this function are incorrect
+    |
+    = note: expected `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}`
+               found `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:24:22: 24:27}`
+    = note: no two async blocks, even if identical, have the same type
+    = help: consider pinning your async block and casting it to a trait object
+note: associated function defined here
+   --> file:///home/.rustup/toolchains/1.82/lib/rustlib/src/rust/library/alloc/src/boxed.rs:255:12
+    |
+255 |     pub fn new(x: T) -> Self {
+    |            ^^^
+
+error[E0308]: mismatched types
+   --> src/main.rs:46:64
+    |
+10  |         let tx1_fut = async move {
+    |                       ---------- the expected `async` block
+...
+30  |         let tx_fut = async move {
+    |                      ---------- the found `async` block
+...
+46  |             vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)];
+    |                                                       -------- ^^^^^^ expected `async` block, found a different `async` block
+    |                                                       |
+    |                                                       arguments to this function are incorrect
+    |
+    = note: expected `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}`
+               found `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:30:22: 30:32}`
+    = note: no two async blocks, even if identical, have the same type
+    = help: consider pinning your async block and casting it to a trait object
+note: associated function defined here
+   --> file:///home/.rustup/toolchains/1.82/lib/rustlib/src/rust/library/alloc/src/boxed.rs:255:12
+    |
+255 |     pub fn new(x: T) -> Self {
+    |            ^^^
+
+error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` cannot be unpinned
+   --> src/main.rs:48:24
+    |
+48  |         trpl::join_all(futures).await;
+    |         -------------- ^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>: Future`
+    |         |
+    |         required by a bound introduced by this call
+    |
+    = note: consider using the `pin!` macro
+            consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope
+    = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>` to implement `Future`
+note: required by a bound in `join_all`
+   --> file:///home/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:105:14
+    |
+102 | pub fn join_all<I>(iter: I) -> JoinAll<I::Item>
+    |        -------- required by a bound in this function
+...
+105 |     I::Item: Future,
+    |              ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `join_all`
+
+error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` cannot be unpinned
+  --> src/main.rs:48:9
+   |
+48 |         trpl::join_all(futures).await;
+   |         ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>: Future`
+   |
+   = note: consider using the `pin!` macro
+           consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope
+   = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>` to implement `Future`
+note: required by a bound in `futures_util::future::join_all::JoinAll`
+  --> file:///home/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8
+   |
+27 | pub struct JoinAll<F>
+   |            ------- required by a bound in this struct
+28 | where
+29 |     F: Future,
+   |        ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll`
+
+error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` cannot be unpinned
+  --> src/main.rs:48:33
+   |
+48 |         trpl::join_all(futures).await;
+   |                                 ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>: Future`
+   |
+   = note: consider using the `pin!` macro
+           consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope
+   = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>` to implement `Future`
+note: required by a bound in `futures_util::future::join_all::JoinAll`
+  --> file:///home/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8
+   |
+27 | pub struct JoinAll<F>
+   |            ------- required by a bound in this struct
+28 | where
+29 |     F: Future,
+   |        ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll`
+```
+
+That is a *lot* to digest, so let’s pull it apart. The first part of the message
+tell us that the first async block (`src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10`) does not
+implement the `Unpin` trait, and suggests using `pin!` or `Box::pin` to resolve
+it. Later in the chapter, we’ll dig into a few more details about `Pin` and
+`Unpin`. For the moment, though, we can just follow the compiler’s advice to get
+unstuck! In Listing 17-18, we start by updating the type annotation for
+`futures`, with a `Pin` wrapping each `Box`. Second, we use `Box::pin` to pin
+the futures themselves.
+
+<Listing number="17-18" caption="Using `Pin` and `Box::pin` to make the `Vec` type check" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/src/main.rs:here}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+If we compile and run this, we finally get the output we hoped for:
+
+<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant;
+the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than
+changes in the compiler -->
+
+```text
+received 'hi'
+received 'more'
+received 'from'
+received 'messages'
+received 'the'
+received 'for'
+received 'future'
+received 'you'
+```
+
+Phew!
+
+There’s a bit more we can explore here. For one thing, using `Pin<Box<T>>`
+comes with a small amount of extra overhead from putting these futures on the
+heap with `Box`—and we’re only doing that to get the types to line up. We don’t
+actually *need* the heap allocation, after all: these futures are local to this
+particular function. As noted above, `Pin` is itself a wrapper type, so we can
+get the benefit of having a single type in the `Vec`—the original reason we
+reached for `Box`—without doing a heap allocation. We can use `Pin` directly
+with each future, using the `std::pin::pin` macro.
+
+However, we must still be explicit about the type of the pinned reference;
+otherwise Rust will still not know to interpret these as dynamic trait objects,
+which is what we need them to be in the `Vec`. We therefore `pin!` each future
+when we define it, and define `futures` as a `Vec` containing pinned mutable
+references to the dynamic `Future` type, as in Listing 17-19.
+
+<Listing number="17-19" caption="Using `Pin` directly with the `pin!` macro to avoid unnecessary heap allocations" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs:here}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+We got this far by ignoring the fact that we might have different `Output`
+types. For example, in Listing 17-20, the anonymous future for `a` implements
+`Future<Output = u32>`, the anonymous future for `b` implements `Future<Output =
+&str>`, and the anonymous future for `c` implements `Future<Output = bool>`.
+
+<Listing number="17-20" caption="Three futures with distinct types" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-20/src/main.rs:here}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+We can use `trpl::join!` to await them, because it allows you to pass in
+multiple future types and produces a tuple of those types. We *cannot* use
+`trpl::join_all`, because it requires the futures passed in all to have the same
+type. Remember, that error is what got us started on this adventure with `Pin`!
+
+This is a fundamental tradeoff: we can either deal with a dynamic number of
+futures with `join_all`, as long as they all have the same type, or we can deal
+with a set number of futures with the `join` functions or the `join!` macro,
+even if they have different types. This is the same as working with any other
+types in Rust, though. Futures are not special, even though we have some nice
+syntax for working with them, and that is a good thing.
+
+### Racing futures
+
+When we “join” futures with the `join` family of functions and macros, we
+require *all* of them to finish before we move on. Sometimes, though, we only
+need *some* future from a set to finish before we move on—kind of similar to
+racing one future against another.
+
+In Listing 17-21, we once again use `trpl::race` to run two futures, `slow` and
+`fast`, against each other. Each one prints a message when it starts running,
+pauses for some amount of time by calling and awaiting `sleep`, and then prints
+another message when it finishes. Then we pass both to `trpl::race` and wait for
+one of them to finish. (The outcome here won’t be too surprising: `fast` wins!)
+Unlike when we used `race` back in [Our First Async Program][async-program], we
+just ignore the `Either` instance it returns here, because all of the
+interesting behavior happens in the body of the async blocks.
+
+<Listing number="17-21" caption="Using `race` to get the result of whichever future finishes first" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21/src/main.rs:here}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+Notice that if you flip the order of the arguments to `race`, the order of the
+“started” messages changes, even though the `fast` future always completes
+first. That’s because the implementation of this particular `race` function is
+not fair. It always runs the futures passed as arguments in the order they’re
+passed. Other implementations *are* fair, and will randomly choose which future
+to poll first. Regardless of whether the implementation of race we’re using is
+fair, though, *one* of the futures will run up to the first `await` in its body
+before another task can start.
+
+Recall from [Our First Async Program][async-program] that at each await point,
+Rust gives a runtime a chance to pause the task and switch to another one if the
+future being awaited isn’t ready. The inverse is also true: Rust *only* pauses
+async blocks and hands control back to a runtime at an await point. Everything
+between await points is synchronous.
+
+That means if you do a bunch of work in an async block without an await point,
+that future will block any other futures from making progress. You may sometimes
+hear this referred to as one future *starving* other futures. In some cases,
+that may not be a big deal. However, if you are doing some kind of expensive
+setup or long-running work, or if you have a future which will keep doing some
+particular task indefinitely, you’ll need to think about when and where to
+hand control back to the runtime.
+
+By the same token, if you have long-running blocking operations, async can be a
+useful tool for providing ways for different parts of the program to relate to
+each other.
+
+But *how* would you hand control back to the runtime in those cases?
+
+### Yielding
+
+Let’s simulate a long-running operation. Listing 17-22 introduces a `slow`
+function. It uses `std::thread::sleep` instead of `trpl::sleep` so that calling
+`slow` will block the current thread for some number of milliseconds. We can use
+`slow` to stand in for real-world operations which are both long-running and
+blocking.
+
+<Listing number="17-22" caption="Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-22/src/main.rs:slow}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+In Listing 17-23, we use `slow` to emulate doing this kind of CPU-bound work in
+a pair of futures. To begin, each future only hands control back to the runtime
+*after* carrying out a bunch of slow operations.
+
+<Listing number="17-23" caption="Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23/src/main.rs:slow-futures}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+If you run this, you will see this output:
+
+<!-- manual-regeneration
+cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23/
+cargo run
+copy just the output
+-->
+
+```text
+'a' started.
+'a' ran for 30ms
+'a' ran for 10ms
+'a' ran for 20ms
+'b' started.
+'b' ran for 75ms
+'b' ran for 10ms
+'b' ran for 15ms
+'b' ran for 350ms
+'a' finished.
+```
+
+As with our earlier example, `race` still finishes as soon as `a` is done.
+There’s no interleaving between the two futures, though. The `a` future does all
+of its work until the `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, then the `b` future does
+all of its work until its own `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, and then the `a`
+future completes. To allow both futures to make progress between their slow
+tasks, we need await points so we can hand control back to the runtime. That
+means we need something we can await!
+
+We can already see this kind of handoff happening in Listing 17-23: if we
+removed the `trpl::sleep` at the end of the `a` future, it would complete
+without the `b` future running *at all*. Maybe we could use the `sleep` function
+as a starting point?
+
+<Listing number="17-24" caption="Using `sleep` to let operations switch off making progress" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24/src/main.rs:here}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+In Listing 17-24, we add `trpl::sleep` calls with await points between each call
+to `slow`. Now the two futures’ work is interleaved:
+
+<!-- manual-regeneration
+cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24
+cargo run
+copy just the output
+-->
+
+```text
+'a' started.
+'a' ran for 30ms
+'b' started.
+'b' ran for 75ms
+'a' ran for 10ms
+'b' ran for 10ms
+'a' ran for 20ms
+'b' ran for 15ms
+'a' finished.
+```
+
+The `a` future still runs for a bit before handing off control to `b`, because
+it calls `slow` before ever calling `trpl::sleep`, but after that the futures
+swap back and forth each time one of them hits an await point. In this case, we
+have done that after every call to `slow`, but we could break up the work
+however makes the most sense to us.
+
+We don’t really want to *sleep* here, though: we want to make progress as fast
+as we can. We just need to hand back control to the runtime. We can do that
+directly, using the `yield_now` function. In Listing 17-25, we replace all those
+`sleep` calls with `yield_now`.
+
+<Listing number="17-25" caption="Using `yield_now` to let operations switch off making progress" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/src/main.rs:yields}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+This is both clearer about the actual intent and can be significantly faster
+than using `sleep`, because timers such as the one used by `sleep` often have
+limits to how granular they can be. The version of `sleep` we are using, for
+example, will always sleep for at least a millisecond, even if we pass it a
+`Duration` of one nanosecond. Again, modern computers are *fast*: they can do a
+lot in one millisecond!
+
+You can see this for yourself by setting up a little benchmark, such as the one
+in Listing 17-26. (This isn’t an especially rigorous way to do performance
+testing, but it suffices to show the difference here.) Here, we skip all the
+status printing, pass a one-nanosecond `Duration` to `trpl::sleep`, and let
+each future run by itself, with no switching between the futures. Then we run
+for 1,000 iterations and see how long the future using `trpl::sleep` takes
+compared to the future using `trpl::yield_now`.
+
+<Listing number="17-26" caption="Comparing the performance of `sleep` and `yield_now`" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/src/main.rs:here}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+The version with `yield_now` is *way* faster!
+
+This means that async can be useful even for compute-bound tasks, depending on
+what else your program is doing, because it provides a useful tool for
+structuring the relationships between different parts of the program. This is a
+form of *cooperative multitasking*, where each future has the power to determine
+when it hands over control via await points. Each future therefore also has the
+responsibility to avoid blocking for too long. In some Rust-based embedded
+operating systems, this is the *only* kind of multitasking!
+
+In real-world code, you won’t usually be alternating function calls with await
+points on every single line, of course. While yielding control in this way is
+relatively inexpensive, it’s not free! In many cases, trying to break up a
+compute-bound task might make it significantly slower, so sometimes it’s better
+for *overall* performance to let an operation block briefly. You should always
+measure to see what your code’s actual performance bottlenecks are. The
+underlying dynamic is an important one to keep in mind if you *are* seeing a
+lot of work happening in serial that you expected to happen concurrently,
+though!
+
+### Building Our Own Async Abstractions
+
+We can also compose futures together to create new patterns. For example, we can
+build a `timeout` function with async building blocks we already have. When
+we’re done, the result will be another building block we could use to build up
+yet further async abstractions.
+
+Listing 17-27 shows how we would expect this `timeout` to work with a slow
+future.
+
+<Listing number="17-27" caption="Using our imagined `timeout` to run a slow operation with a time limit" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust,ignore
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-27/src/main.rs:here}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+Let’s implement this! To begin, let’s think about the API for `timeout`:
+
+* It needs to be an async function itself so we can await it.
+* Its first parameter should be a future to run. We can make it generic to allow
+  it to work with any future.
+* Its second parameter will be the maximum time to wait. If we use a `Duration`,
+  that will make it easy to pass along to `trpl::sleep`.
+* It should return a `Result`. If the future completes successfully, the
+  `Result` will be `Ok` with the value produced by the future. If the timeout
+  elapses first, the `Result` will be `Err` with the duration that the timeout
+  waited for.
+
+Listing 17-28 shows this declaration.
+
+<!-- This is not tested because it intentionally does not compile. -->
+
+<Listing number="17-28" caption="Defining the signature of `timeout`" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust,ignore
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-28/src/main.rs:declaration}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+That satisfies our goals for the types. Now let’s think about the *behavior* we
+need: we want to race the future passed in against the duration. We can use
+`trpl::sleep` to make a timer future from the duration, and use `trpl::race` to
+run that timer with the future the caller passes in.
+
+We also know that `race` is not fair, and polls arguments in the order they are
+passed. Thus, we pass `future_to_try` to `race` first so it gets a chance to
+complete even if `max_time` is a very short duration. If `future_to_try`
+finishes first, `race` will return `Left` with the output from `future`. If
+`timer` finishes first, `race` will return `Right` with the timer’s output of
+`()`.
+
+In Listing 17-29, we match on the result of awaiting `trpl::race`. If the
+`future_to_try` succeeded and we get a `Left(output)`, we return `Ok(output)`.
+If the sleep timer elapsed instead and we get a `Right(())`, we ignore the `()`
+with `_` and return `Err(max_time)` instead.
+
+<Listing number="17-29" caption="Defining `timeout` with `race` and `sleep`" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/src/main.rs:implementation}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+With that, we have a working `timeout`, built out of two other async helpers. If
+we run our code, it will print the failure mode after the timeout:
+
+```text
+Failed after 2 seconds
+```
+
+Because futures compose with other futures, you can build really powerful tools
+using smaller async building blocks. For example, you can use this same
+approach to combine timeouts with retries, and in turn use those with things
+such as network calls—one of the examples from the beginning of the chapter!
+
+In practice, you will usually work directly with `async` and `await`, and
+secondarily with functions and macros such as `join`, `join_all`, `race`, and
+so on. You’ll only need to reach for `pin` now and again to use them with those
+APIs.
+
+We’ve now seen a number of ways to work with multiple futures at the same
+time. Up next, we’ll look at how we can work with multiple futures in a
+sequence over time, with *streams*. Here are a couple more things you might want
+to consider first, though:
+
+* We used a `Vec` with `join_all` to wait for all of the futures in some group
+  to finish. How could you use a `Vec` to process a group of futures in
+  sequence, instead? What are the tradeoffs of doing that?
+
+* Take a look at the `futures::stream::FuturesUnordered` type from the `futures`
+  crate. How would using it be different from using a `Vec`? (Don’t worry about
+  the fact that it is from the `stream` part of the crate; it works just fine
+  with any collection of futures.)
+
+
+[collections]: ch08-01-vectors.html#using-an-enum-to-store-multiple-types
+[dyn]: ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.html
+[async-program]: ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.html#our-first-async-program
diff --git a/src/ch17-03-vs-threads.md b/src/ch17-03-vs-threads.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..63f270522
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/ch17-03-vs-threads.md
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+<!-- TODO: find the right home for this (maybe nowhere!) -->
+
+As we saw in the previous chapter, threads provide one approach to concurrency,
+and they let us solve some of these issues. However, they also have some
+tradeoffs. On many operating systems, they use a fair bit of memory for each
+thread, and they come with some overhead for starting up and shutting down.
+Threads are also only an option when your operating system and hardware support
+them! While mainstream desktop and mobile operating systems have all had
+threading for many years, many embedded operating systems, like those used on
+some microcontrollers, do not.
+
+The async model provides a different—and ultimately complementary—set of
+tradeoffs. In the async model, concurrent operations do not require their own
+threads. Instead, they can run on *tasks*. A task is a bit like a thread, but
+instead of being managed by the operating system, it is managed by code that
+lives at the level of libraries.
+
+<!--
+  TODO: connective tissue as it were. Also, an open question on whether we want
+  to use “task” as the primary term here. Futures do not actually *require* a
+  task primitive to run (and there are runtimes which do *not* use tasks!) so it
+  might make more sense to find another common, appropriate term for it instead.
+-->
diff --git a/src/ch17-04-streams.md b/src/ch17-04-streams.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..d08e40689
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/ch17-04-streams.md
@@ -0,0 +1,444 @@
+## Streams
+
+So far in this chapter, we have mostly stuck to individual futures. The one big
+exception was the async channel we used. Recall how we used the receiver for our
+async channel in the [“Message Passing”][17-02-messages] earlier in the chapter.
+The async `recv` method produces a sequence of items over time. This is an
+instance of a much more general pattern, often called a *stream*.
+
+A sequence of items is something we’ve seen before, when we looked at the
+`Iterator` trait in Chapter 13. There are two differences between iterators and
+the async channel receiver, though. The first is the element of time: iterators
+are synchronous, while the channel receiver is asynchronous. The second is the
+API. When working directly with an `Iterator`, we call its synchronous `next`
+method. With the `trpl::Receiver` stream in particular, we called an
+asynchronous `recv` method instead. These APIs otherwise feel very similar.
+
+That similarity isn’t a coincidence. A stream is similar to an asynchronous
+form of iteration. Whereas the `trpl::Receiver` specifically waits to receive
+messages, though, the general-purpose stream API is much more general: it
+provides the next item the way `Iterator` does, but asynchronously. The
+similarity between iterators and streams in Rust means we can actually create a
+stream from any iterator. As with an iterator, we can work with a stream by
+calling its `next` method and then awaiting the output, as in Listing 17-30.
+
+<Listing number="17-30" caption="Creating a stream from an iterator and printing its values" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-30/src/main.rs:stream}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+We start with an array of numbers, which we convert to an iterator and then call
+`map` on to double all the values. Then we convert the iterator into a stream
+using the `trpl::stream_from_iter` function. Then we loop over the items in the
+stream as they arrive with the `while let` loop.
+
+Unfortunately, when we try to run the code, it doesn’t compile. Instead, as we
+can see in the output, it reports that there is no `next` method available.
+
+<!-- manual-regeneration
+cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-30
+cargo build
+copy only the error output
+-->
+
+```console
+error[E0599]: no method named `next` found for struct `Iter` in the current scope
+  --> src/main.rs:10:40
+   |
+10 |         while let Some(value) = stream.next().await {
+   |                                        ^^^^
+   |
+   = note: the full type name has been written to 'file:///projects/async_await/target/debug/deps/async_await-9de943556a6001b8.long-type-1281356139287206597.txt'
+   = note: consider using `--verbose` to print the full type name to the console
+   = help: items from traits can only be used if the trait is in scope
+help: the following traits which provide `next` are implemented but not in scope; perhaps you want to import one of them
+   |
+1  + use crate::trpl::StreamExt;
+   |
+1  + use futures_util::stream::stream::StreamExt;
+   |
+1  + use std::iter::Iterator;
+   |
+1  + use std::str::pattern::Searcher;
+   |
+help: there is a method `try_next` with a similar name
+   |
+10 |         while let Some(value) = stream.try_next().await {
+   |                                        ~~~~~~~~
+```
+
+As the output suggests, the reason for the compiler error is that we need the
+right trait in scope to be able to use the `next` method. Given our discussion
+so far, you might reasonably expect that to be `Stream`, but the trait we need
+here is actually `StreamExt`. The `Ext` there is for “extension”: this is a
+common pattern in the Rust community for extending one trait with another.
+
+Why do we need `StreamExt` instead of `Stream`, and what does the `Stream` trait
+itself do? Briefly, the answer is that throughout the Rust ecosystem, the
+`Stream` trait defines a low-level interface which effectively combines the
+`Iterator` and `Future` traits. The `StreamExt` trait supplies a higher-level
+set of APIs on top of `Stream`, including the `next` method as well as other
+utility methods similar to those provided by the `Iterator` trait. We’ll return
+to the `Stream` and `StreamExt` traits in a bit more detail at the end of the
+chapter. For now, this is enough to let us keep moving.
+
+The fix to the compiler error is to add a `use` statement for `trpl::StreamExt`,
+as in Listing 17-31.
+
+<Listing number="17-31" caption="Successfully using an iterator as the basis for a stream" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-31/src/main.rs:all}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+With all those pieces put together, this code works the way we want! What’s
+more, now that we have `StreamExt` in scope, we can use all of its utility
+methods, just as with iterators. For example, in Listing 17-32, we use the
+`filter` method to filter out everything but multiples of three and five.
+
+<Listing number="17-32" caption="Filtering a `Stream` with the `StreamExt::filter` method" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-32/src/main.rs:all}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+Of course, this isn’t very interesting. We could do that with normal iterators
+and without any async at all. So let’s look at some of the other things we can
+do which are unique to streams.
+
+### Composing Streams
+
+Many concepts are naturally represented as streams: items becoming available in
+a queue, or working with more data than can fit in a computer’s memory by only
+pulling chunks of it from the file system at a time, or data arriving over the
+network over time. Because streams are futures, we can use them with any other
+kind of future, too, and we can combine them in interesting ways. For example,
+we can batch up events to avoid triggering too many network calls, set timeouts
+on sequences of long-running operations, or throttle user interface events to
+avoid doing needless work.
+
+Let’s start by building a little stream of messages, as a stand-in for a stream
+of data we might see from a WebSocket or another real-time communication
+protocol. In Listing 17-33, we create a function `get_messages` which returns
+`impl Stream<Item = String>`. For its implementation, we create an async
+channel, loop over the first ten letters of the English alphabet, and send them
+across the channel.
+
+We also use a new type: `ReceiverStream`, which converts the `rx` receiver from
+the `trpl::channel` into a `Stream` with a `next` method. Back in `main`, we use
+a `while let` loop to print all the messages from the stream.
+
+<Listing number="17-33" caption="Using the `rx` receiver as a `ReceiverStream`" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-33/src/main.rs:all}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+When we run this code, we get exactly the results we would expect:
+
+<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant;
+the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than
+changes in the compiler -->
+
+```text
+Message: 'a'
+Message: 'b'
+Message: 'c'
+Message: 'd'
+Message: 'e'
+Message: 'f'
+Message: 'g'
+Message: 'h'
+Message: 'i'
+Message: 'j'
+```
+
+We could do this with the regular `Receiver` API, or even the regular `Iterator`
+API, though. Let’s add something that requires streams: adding a timeout
+which applies to every item in the stream, and a delay on the items we emit.
+
+In Listing 17-34, we start by adding a timeout to the stream with the `timeout`
+method, which comes from the `StreamExt` trait. Then we update the body of the
+`while let` loop, because the stream now returns a `Result`. The `Ok` variant
+indicates a message arrived in time; the `Err` variant indicates that the
+timeout elapsed before any message arrived. We `match` on that result and either
+print the message when we receive it successfully, or print a notice about the
+timeout. Finally, notice that we pin the messages after applying the timeout to
+them, because the timeout helper produces a stream which needs to be pinned to
+be polled.
+
+<Listing number="17-34" caption="Using the `StreamExt::timeout` method to set a time limit on the items in a stream" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-34/src/main.rs:timeout}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+However, because there are no delays between messages, this timeout does not
+change the behavior of the program. Let’s add a variable delay to the messages
+we send. In `get_messages`, we use the `enumerate` iterator method with the
+`messages` array so that we can get the index of each item we are sending along
+with the item itself. Then we apply a 100 millisecond delay to even-index items
+and a 300 millisecond delay to odd-index items, to simulate the different delays
+we might see from a stream of messages in the real world. Because our timeout is
+for 200 milliseconds, this should affect half of the messages.
+
+<Listing number="17-35" caption="Sending messages through `tx` with an async delay without making `get_messages` an async function" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/src/main.rs:messages}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+To sleep between messages in the `get_messages` function without blocking, we
+need to use async. However, we can’t make `get_messages` itself into an async
+function, because then we’d return a `Future<Output = Stream<Item = String>>`
+instead of a `Stream<Item = String>>`. The caller would have to await
+`get_messages` itself to get access to the stream. But remember: everything in a
+given future happens linearly; concurrency happens *between* futures. Awaiting
+`get_messages` would require it to send all the messages, including sleeping
+between sending each message, before returning the receiver stream. As a result,
+the timeout would end up useless. There would be no delays in the stream itself:
+the delays would all happen before the stream was even available.
+
+Instead, we leave `get_messages` as a regular function which returns a stream,
+and spawn a task to handle the async `sleep` calls.
+
+> Note: calling `spawn_task` in this way works because we already set up our
+> runtime. Calling this particular implementation of `spawn_task` *without*
+> first setting up a runtime will cause a panic. Other implementations choose
+> different tradeoffs: they might spawn a new runtime and so avoid the panic but
+> end up with a bit of extra overhead, or simply not provide a standalone way to
+> spawn tasks without reference to a runtime. You should make sure you know what
+> tradeoff your runtime has chosen and write your code accordingly!
+
+Now our code has a much more interesting result! Between every other pair of
+messages, we see an error reported: `Problem: Elapsed(())`.
+
+<!-- manual-regeneration
+cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35
+cargo run
+copy only the program output, *not* the compiler output
+-->
+
+```text
+Message: 'a'
+Problem: Elapsed(())
+Message: 'b'
+Message: 'c'
+Problem: Elapsed(())
+Message: 'd'
+Message: 'e'
+Problem: Elapsed(())
+Message: 'f'
+Message: 'g'
+Problem: Elapsed(())
+Message: 'h'
+Message: 'i'
+Problem: Elapsed(())
+Message: 'j'
+```
+
+The timeout doesn’t prevent the messages from arriving in the end—we still get
+all of the original messages. This is because our channel is unbounded: it can
+hold as many messages as we can fit in memory. If the message doesn’t arrive
+before the timeout, our stream handler will account for that, but when it polls
+the stream again, the message may now have arrived.
+
+You can get different behavior if needed by using other kinds of channels, or
+other kinds of streams more generally. Let’s see one of those in practice in our
+final example for this section, by combining a stream of time intervals with
+this stream of messages.
+
+### Merging Streams
+
+First, let’s create another stream, which will emit an item every millisecond if
+we let it run directly. For simplicity, we can use the `sleep` function to send
+a message on a delay, and combine it with the same approach of creating a stream
+from a channel we used in `get_messages`. The difference is that this time,
+we’re going to send back the count of intervals which has elapsed, so the return
+type will be `impl Stream<Item = u32>`, and we can call the function
+`get_intervals`.
+
+In Listing 17-36, we start by defining a `count` in the task. (We could define
+it outside the task, too, but it is clearer to limit the scope of any given
+variable.) Then we create an infinite loop. Each iteration of the loop
+asynchronously sleeps for one millisecond, increments the count, and then sends
+it over the channel. Because this is all wrapped in the task created by
+`spawn_task`, all of it will get cleaned up along with the runtime, including
+the infinite loop.
+
+<Listing number="17-36" caption="Creating a stream with a counter that will be emitted once every millisecond" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-36/src/main.rs:intervals}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+This kind of infinite loop, which only ends when the whole runtime gets torn
+down, is fairly common in async Rust: many programs need to keep running
+indefinitely. With async, this doesn’t block anything else, as long as there is
+at least one await point in each iteration through the loop.
+
+Back in our main function’s async block, we start by calling `get_intervals`.
+Then we merge the `messages` and `intervals` streams with the `merge` method,
+which combines multiple streams into one stream that produces items from any of
+the source streams as soon as the items are available, without imposing any
+particular ordering. Finally, we loop over that combined stream instead of over
+`messages` (Listing 17-37).
+
+<Listing number="17-37" caption="Attempting to merge streams of messages and intervals" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-37/src/main.rs:main}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+At this point, neither `messages` nor `intervals` needs to be pinned or mutable,
+because both will be combined into the single `merged` stream. However, this
+call to `merge` does not compile! (Neither does the `next` call in the `while
+let` loop, but we’ll come back to that after fixing this.) The two streams
+have different types. The `messages` stream has the type `Timeout<impl
+Stream<Item = String>>`, where `Timeout` is the type which implements `Stream`
+for a `timeout` call. Meanwhile, the `intervals` stream has the type `impl
+Stream<Item = u32>`. To merge these two streams, we need to transform one of
+them to match the other.
+
+In Listing 17-38, we rework the `intervals` stream, because `messages` is
+already in the basic format we want and has to handle timeout errors. First, we
+can use the `map` helper method to transform the `intervals` into a string.
+Second, we need to match the `Timeout` from `messages`. Because we don’t
+actually *want* a timeout for `intervals`, though, we can just create a timeout
+which is longer than the other durations we are using. Here, we create a
+10-second timeout with `Duration::from_secs(10)`. Finally, we need to make
+`stream` mutable, so that the `while let` loop’s `next` calls can iterate
+through the stream, and pin it so that it’s safe to do so.
+
+<!-- We cannot directly test this one, because it never stops. -->
+
+<Listing number="17-38" caption="Aligning the types of the the `intervals` stream with the type of the `messages` stream" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust,ignore
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/src/main.rs:main}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+That gets us *almost* to where we need to be. Everything type checks. If you run
+this, though, there will be two problems. First, it will never stop! You’ll
+need to stop it with <span class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>. Second, the
+messages from the English alphabet will be buried in the midst of all the
+interval counter messages:
+
+<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant;
+the changes are likely to be due to the tasks running differently rather than
+changes in the compiler -->
+
+```text
+--snip--
+Interval: 38
+Interval: 39
+Interval: 40
+Message: 'a'
+Interval: 41
+Interval: 42
+Interval: 43
+--snip--
+```
+
+Listing 17-39 shows one way to solve these last two problems. First, we use the
+`throttle` method on the `intervals` stream, so that it doesn’t overwhelm the
+`messages` stream. Throttling is a way of limiting the rate at which a function
+will be called—or, in this case, how often the stream will be polled. Once every
+hundred milliseconds should do, because that is in the same ballpark as how
+often our messages arrive.
+
+To limit the number of items we will accept from a stream, we can use the `take`
+method. We apply it to the *merged* stream, because we want to limit the final
+output, not just one stream or the other.
+
+<Listing number="17-39" caption="Using `throttle` and `take` to manage the merged streams" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/src/main.rs:throttle}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+Now when we run the program, it stops after pulling twenty items from the
+stream, and the intervals don’t overwhelm the messages. We also don’t get
+`Interval: 100` or `Interval: 200` or so on, but instead get `Interval: 1`,
+`Interval: 2`, and so on—even though we have a source stream which *can*
+produce an event every millisecond. That’s because the `throttle` call
+produces a new stream, wrapping the original stream, so that the original
+stream only gets polled at the throttle rate, not its own “native” rate. We
+don’t have a bunch of unhandled interval messages we’re choosing to
+ignore. Instead, we never produce those interval messages in the first place!
+This is the inherent “laziness” of Rust’s futures at work again, allowing us to
+choose our performance characteristics.
+
+<!-- manual-regeneration
+cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39
+cargo run
+copy and paste only the program output
+-->
+
+```text
+Interval: 1
+Message: 'a'
+Interval: 2
+Interval: 3
+Problem: Elapsed(())
+Interval: 4
+Message: 'b'
+Interval: 5
+Message: 'c'
+Interval: 6
+Interval: 7
+Problem: Elapsed(())
+Interval: 8
+Message: 'd'
+Interval: 9
+Message: 'e'
+Interval: 10
+Interval: 11
+Problem: Elapsed(())
+Interval: 12
+```
+
+There’s one last thing we need to handle: errors! With both of these
+channel-based streams, the `send` calls could fail when the other side of the
+channel closes—and that’s just a matter of how the runtime executes the futures
+which make up the stream. Up until now we have ignored this by calling `unwrap`,
+but in a well-behaved app, we should explicitly handle the error, at minimum by
+ending the loop so we don’t try to send any more messages!  Listing 17-40 shows
+a simple error strategy: print the issue and then `break` from the loops. As
+usual, the correct way to handle a message send error will vary—just make sure
+you have a strategy.
+
+<Listing number="17-40" caption="Handling errors and shutting down the loops">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/src/main.rs:errors}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+Now that we’ve seen a bunch of async in practice, let’s take a step back and
+dig into a few of the details of how `Future`, `Stream`, and the other key
+traits which Rust uses to make async work.
+
+[17-02-messages]: ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.html#message-passing
diff --git a/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md b/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..e0b9ee300
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md
@@ -0,0 +1,509 @@
+## Profundizando en los rasgos para async
+
+A lo largo del capítulo, hemos utilizado los traits `Future`, `Pin`, `Unpin`,
+`Stream` y `StreamExt` de diversas maneras. Hasta ahora, sin embargo, hemos
+evitado profundizar demasiado en los detalles de cómo funcionan o cómo se
+relacionan. La mayor parte del tiempo al escribir Rust día a día, esto está 
+bien. A veces, sin embargo, te encontrarás en situaciones en las que entender
+algunos de estos detalles adicionales importa. En esta sección, profundizaremos
+*lo suficiente* para ayudar con esas situaciones, ¡pero dejando la inmersión
+*realmente* profunda para otra documentación!
+
+### Futuro
+
+En [Futuros y la sintaxis async][futures-syntax], mencionamos que `Future` es un
+trait. Comencemos por echar un vistazo más de cerca a cómo funciona. Así es como
+Rust define un `Future`:
+
+```rust
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::task::{Context, Poll};
+
+pub trait Future {
+    type Output;
+
+    fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Self::Output>;
+}
+```
+
+La definición de este trait incluye un montón de nuevos tipos y también algo de
+sintaxis que no hemos visto antes, así que vamos a recorrer la definición pieza
+por pieza.
+
+Primero, el tipo asociado `Output` de `Future` indica a qué se resuelve el
+futuro. Esto es análogo al tipo asociado `Item` del trait `Iterator`. En segundo
+lugar, `Future` también tiene el método `poll`, que toma una referencia especial
+de `Pin` para su parámetro `self` y una referencia mutable a un tipo `Context`,
+y devuelve un `Poll<Self::Output>`. Hablaremos un poco más sobre `Pin` y
+`Context` más adelante en la sección. Por ahora, centrémonos en lo que devuelve
+el método, el tipo `Poll`:
+
+```rust
+enum Poll<T> {
+    Ready(T),
+    Pending,
+}
+```
+
+Este tipo `Poll` es similar a un `Option`: tiene una variante que tiene un valor
+(`Ready(T)`) y una que no lo tiene (`Pending`). ¡Sin embargo, significa algo
+bastante diferente! La variante `Pending` indica que el futuro todavía tiene
+trabajo por hacer, por lo que el llamante deberá volver a comprobar más tarde.
+La variante `Ready` indica que el `Future` ha terminado su trabajo y el valor
+`T` está disponible.
+
+> Nota: Con la mayoría de los futuros, el llamante no debería llamar a `poll`
+> nuevamente después de que el futuro haya devuelto `Ready`. ¡Muchos futuros
+> generarán un pánico si se vuelven a llamar después de estar listos! Los 
+futuros que son seguros de volver a llamar dirán explícitamente en su
+documentación. ¡Esto es similar a cómo se comporta `Iterator::next`!
+
+Bajo el capó, cuando ves código que usa `await`, Rust lo compila a código que
+llama a `poll`. Si vuelves a mirar el Listado 17-4, donde imprimimos el título
+de la página para una sola URL una vez que se resolvió, Rust lo compila en algo
+así (aunque no exactamente):
+
+```rust,ignore
+match page_title(url).poll() {
+    Ready(page_title) => match page_title {
+        Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"),
+        None => println!("{url} had no title"),
+    }
+    Pending => {
+        // ¿Pero qué va aquí?
+    }
+}
+```
+
+¿Qué deberíamos hacer cuando el `Future` todavía está `Pending`? Necesitamos
+alguna forma de intentarlo nuevamente... y nuevamente, y nuevamente, hasta que
+finalmente el futuro esté listo. En otras palabras, un bucle:
+
+```rust,ignore
+let mut page_title_fut = page_title(url);
+loop {
+    match page_title_fut.poll() {
+        Ready(value) => match page_title {
+            Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"),
+            None => println!("{url} had no title"),
+        }
+        Pending => {
+            // continuar
+        }
+    }
+}
+```
+
+Sin embargo, si Rust lo compilara exactamente a ese código, cada `await` sería
+bloqueante, ¡exactamente lo contrario de lo que estábamos buscando! En cambio,
+Rust se asegura de que el bucle pueda ceder el control a algo que pueda pausar
+el trabajo en este futuro y trabajar en otros futuros y volver a comprobar este
+más tarde. Ese “algo” es un tiempo de ejecución async, y esta programación y
+coordinación es uno de los trabajos principales de un tiempo de ejecución.
+
+Recuerda nuestra descripción (en la sección [Contando][counting]) de esperar en
+`rx.recv`. La llamada `recv` devuelve un `Future`, y esperarlo lo encuesta. En
+nuestra discusión inicial, notamos que un tiempo de ejecución pausará el futuro
+hasta que esté listo con `Some(message)` o `None` cuando el canal se cierre. Con
+nuestro entendimiento más profundo de `Future` en su lugar, y específicamente
+`Future::poll`, podemos ver cómo funciona. El tiempo de ejecución sabe que el
+futuro no está listo cuando devuelve `Poll::Pending`. Por el contrario, el
+tiempo de ejecución sabe que el futuro está listo y lo avanza cuando `poll`
+devuelve `Poll::Ready(Some(message))` o `Poll::Ready(None)`.
+
+Los detalles exactos de cómo un tiempo de ejecución hace eso son más de lo que
+cubriremos incluso en esta sección de inmersión profunda. La clave aquí es ver
+el mecanismo básico de los futuros: un tiempo de ejecución *encuesta* cada 
+futuro del que es responsable, poniéndolo a dormir cuando aún no está listo.
+
+### Pinning y los traits Pin y Unpin
+
+Cuando introdujimos la idea de pinning mientras trabajábamos en el Listado 
+17-16, nos encontramos con un mensaje de error muy complicado. Aquí está la
+parte relevante de nuevo:
+
+<!-- manual-regeneration
+cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16
+cargo build
+copy *only* the final `error` block from the errors
+-->
+
+```text
+error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` cannot be unpinned
+  --> src/main.rs:48:33
+   |
+48 |         trpl::join_all(futures).await;
+   |                                 ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>: Future`
+   |
+   = note: consider using the `pin!` macro
+           consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope
+   = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>` to implement `Future`
+note: required by a bound in `futures_util::future::join_all::JoinAll`
+  --> file:///home/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8
+   |
+27 | pub struct JoinAll<F>
+   |            ------- required by a bound in this struct
+28 | where
+29 |     F: Future,
+   |        ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll`
+```
+
+Cuando leemos este mensaje de error con atención, no solo nos indica que 
+necesitamos "pinear" (fijar/pin) los valores, sino que también nos explica por 
+qué es necesario "pinearlos". La función trpl::join_all devuelve una estructura 
+llamada JoinAll. Esa estructura es genérica sobre un tipo F, el cual está 
+restringido a implementar el trait Future. Al esperar directamente un futuro con 
+await, el futuro se "pinea" implícitamente. Por eso no necesitamos usar pin! en 
+todos los lugares donde queremos esperar futuros
+
+Sin embargo, aquí no estamos esperando directamente un futuro. En su lugar,
+construimos un nuevo futuro, `JoinAll`, pasando una colección de futuros a la
+función `join_all`. La firma de `join_all` requiere que el tipo de los elementos
+de la colección implementen el trait `Future`, y `Box<T>` solo implementa
+`Future` si `T` que envuelve es un futuro que implementa el trait `Unpin`.
+
+¡Eso es mucho! Pero podemos entenderlo, si profundizamos un poco más en cómo
+funciona el tipo `Future`, en particular en torno al *pineado*.
+
+Veamos nuevamente la definición de `Future`:
+
+```rust
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::task::{Context, Poll};
+
+pub trait Future {
+    type Output;
+
+    // Required method
+    // Método requerido
+    fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Self::Output>;
+}
+```
+
+El parámetro `cx` y su tipo `Context` son la clave de cómo un tiempo de 
+ejecución realmente sabe cuándo comprobar cualquier futuro dado, mientras sigue
+siendo perezoso. Sin embargo, los detalles de cómo funciona eso están más allá
+del alcance de este capítulo: generalmente solo necesitas preocuparte por ello
+cuando escribes una implementación personalizada de `Future`.
+
+En cambio, nos centraremos en el tipo para `self`. Esta es la primera vez que
+vemos un método donde `self` tiene una anotación de tipo. Una anotación de tipo
+para `self` es similar a las anotaciones de tipo para otros parámetros de
+función, con dos diferencias clave. Primero, cuando especificamos el tipo de
+`self` de esta manera, le estamos diciendo a Rust qué tipo debe ser `self` para
+llamar a este método. En segundo lugar, una anotación de tipo en `self` no puede
+ser solo cualquier tipo. Solo se permite que sea el tipo en el que se implementa
+el método, una referencia o un puntero inteligente a ese tipo, o un `Pin` que
+envuelve una referencia a ese tipo. Veremos más sobre esta sintaxis en el
+Capítulo 18. Por ahora, es suficiente saber que si queremos encuestar un futuro
+(para comprobar si está `Pending` o `Ready(Output)`), necesitamos una referencia
+mutable al tipo, que está envuelto en un `Pin`.
+
+`Pin` es un tipo de envoltura (wrapper type). En ciertos aspectos, es similar a
+`Box`, `Rc` y otros tipos de punteros inteligentes que vimos en el Capítulo 15,
+que también envuelven otros tipos. Sin embargo, a diferencia de esos, `Pin` solo
+funciona con *tipos de puntero* como referencias (`&` y `&mut`) y punteros
+inteligentes (`Box`, `Rc`, y así sucesivamente). Para ser precisos, `Pin`
+funciona con tipos que implementan los traits `Deref` o `DerefMut`, que cubrimos
+en el Capítulo 15. Puedes pensar en esta restricción como equivalente a solo
+trabajar con punteros, porque implementar `Deref` o `DerefMut` significa que tu
+tipo se comporta de manera similar a un tipo de puntero. `Pin` tampoco es un
+puntero en sí mismo, y no tiene ningún comportamiento propio como lo hacen `Rc`
+y `Arc` con el conteo de referencias. Es puramente una herramienta que el
+compilador puede usar para mantener las garantías relevantes, envolviendo
+punteros en el tipo.
+
+Recordando que `await` se implementa en términos de llamadas a `poll`, esto
+comienza a explicar el mensaje de error que vimos anteriormente, pero eso fue en
+términos de `Unpin`, no de `Pin`. Entonces, ¿qué son exactamente `Pin` y `Unpin`,
+cómo se relacionan y por qué `Future` necesita que `self` esté en un tipo `Pin`
+para llamar a `poll`?
+
+En [Nuestro primer programa async][first-async], describimos cómo una serie de
+awaits en un futuro se compilan en una máquina de estados, y señalamos
+cómo el compilador ayuda a asegurarse de que esa máquina de estados siga todas
+las reglas normales de Rust en torno a la seguridad, incluyendo el préstamo y la
+propiedad. Para que eso funcione, Rust mira qué datos se necesitan entre cada
+punto de espera y el siguiente punto de espera o el final del bloque async. 
+Luego crea una variante correspondiente en la máquina de estados que crea. Cada
+variante obtiene el acceso que necesita a los datos que se utilizarán en esa
+sección del código fuente, ya sea tomando posesión de esos datos o obteniendo
+una referencia mutable o inmutable a ellos.
+
+Hasta aquí todo bien: si nos equivocamos sobre el ownership o las referencias en
+un bloque async dado, el verificador de préstamos nos lo dirá. Cuando queremos
+mover el futuro que corresponde a ese bloque, como moverlo a un `Vec` para pasar
+a `join_all`, de la forma en que lo hicimos en la sección [“Trabajando con
+cualquier cantidad de futuros”][any-number-futures]<!-- ignore -->, las cosas se
+ponen más complicadas.
+
+Cuando movemos un futuro, ya sea empujándolo en una estructura de datos para
+usarlo como un iterador con `join_all`, o devolviéndolos desde una función, eso
+significa mover la máquina de estados que Rust crea para nosotros. Y a diferencia
+de la mayoría de los otros tipos en Rust, los futuros que Rust crea para bloques
+async pueden terminar con referencias a sí mismos en los campos de cualquier
+variante dada, como en la Figura 17-4 (una ilustración simplificada para 
+ayudarte a tener una idea de la idea, en lugar de profundizar en lo que a menudo 
+son detalles bastante complicados).
+
+<figure>
+
+<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-04.svg" class="center" />
+
+<figcaption>Figura 17-4: Un tipo de datos auto-referencial.</figcaption>
+
+</figure>
+
+Sin embargo, por defecto, cualquier objeto que tenga una referencia a sí mismo
+es inseguro de mover, porque las referencias siempre apuntan a la dirección de
+memoria real de la cosa a la que se refieren. Si mueves la estructura de datos
+en sí, esas referencias internas seguirán apuntando a la ubicación antigua.
+Sin embargo, esa ubicación de memoria ahora es inválida. Por un lado, su valor
+no se actualizará cuando hagas cambios en la estructura de datos. Por otro lado,
+¡y más importante! ¡la computadora ahora es libre de reutilizar esa memoria para
+otras cosas! Podrías terminar leyendo datos completamente no relacionados más
+tarde.
+
+<figure>
+
+<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-05.svg" class="center" />
+
+<figcaption>Figura 17-5: El resultado inseguro de mover un tipo de datos auto-referencial.</figcaption>
+
+</figure>
+
+En principio, el compilador de Rust podría intentar actualizar cada referencia a
+un objeto cada vez que se mueve. Eso podría ser un sobrecoste de rendimiento
+potencialmente grande, especialmente dado que puede haber una red completa de
+referencias que necesitan actualizarse. Por otro lado, si pudiéramos asegurarnos
+de que la estructura de datos en cuestión *no se mueva en memoria*, no tenemos
+que actualizar ninguna referencia. Esto es exactamente lo que requiere el
+verificador de préstamos de Rust: no puedes mover un elemento que tenga alguna
+referencia activa a él usando código seguro.
+
+`Pin` se basa en eso para darnos la garantía exacta que necesitamos. Cuando
+*pineamos* un valor envolviendo un puntero a ese valor en `Pin`, ya no se puede
+mover. Por lo tanto, si tienes `Pin<Box<SomeType>>`, en realidad estás pineando
+el valor `SomeType`, *no* el puntero `Box`. La Figura 17-6 ilustra esto:
+
+<figure>
+
+<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-06.svg" class="center" />
+
+<figcaption>Figura 17-6: Pineando un `Box` que apunta a un tipo de futuro auto-referencial.</figcaption>
+
+</figure>
+
+De hecho, el puntero `Box` todavía puede moverse libremente. Recuerda: nos
+importa asegurarnos de que los datos a los que se hace referencia en última
+instancia permanezcan en su lugar. Si un puntero se mueve, pero los datos a los
+que apunta están en el mismo lugar, como en la Figura 17-7, no hay ningún
+problema potencial. (Cómo harías esto con un `Pin` envolviendo un `Box` es más
+de lo que profundizaremos en esta discusión en particular, ¡pero sería un buen
+ejercicio! Si miras la documentación de los tipos, así como el módulo 
+`std::pin`, podrías averiguar cómo lo harías). La clave es que el tipo
+auto-referencial en sí no puede moverse, porque todavía está pineado.
+
+<figure>
+
+<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-07.svg" class="center" />
+
+<figcaption>Figura 17-7: Moviendo un `Box` que apunta a un tipo de futuro auto-referencial.</figcaption>
+
+</figure>
+
+Sin embargo, la mayoría de los tipos son perfectamente seguros de mover, incluso
+si resulta que están detrás de un puntero `Pin`. Solo necesitamos pensar en
+pinear cuando los elementos tienen referencias internas. Valores primitivos como
+números y booleanos no tienen referencias internas, por lo que obviamente son
+seguros. Tampoco la mayoría de los tipos con los que normalmente trabajas en
+Rust. Un `Vec`, por ejemplo, no tiene referencias internas que necesite mantener
+actualizadas de esta manera, por lo que puedes moverlo sin preocuparte. Si 
+tienes un `Pin<Vec<String>>`, tendrías que hacer todo a través de las API
+seguras pero restrictivas proporcionadas por `Pin`, aunque un `Vec<String>`
+siempre es seguro de mover si no hay otras referencias a él. Necesitamos una
+forma de decirle al compilador que en realidad está bien mover elementos en
+casos como estos. Para eso, tenemos `Unpin`.
+
+`Unpin` es un trait marcador, similar a los traits `Send` y `Sync` que vimos en
+el Capítulo 16. Recuerda que los traits marcadores no tienen funcionalidad
+propia. Solo existen para decirle al compilador que es seguro usar el tipo que
+implementa un trait dado en un contexto particular. `Unpin` informa al
+compilador que un tipo dado *no* necesita mantener ninguna garantía particular
+sobre si el valor en cuestión puede moverse.
+
+Al igual que con `Send` y `Sync`, el compilador implementa `Unpin`
+automáticamente para todos los tipos donde puede demostrar que es seguro. El
+caso especial, nuevamente similar a `Send` y `Sync`, es el caso en el que
+*no* se implementa `Unpin` para un tipo. La notación para esto es
+`impl !Unpin for SomeType`, donde `SomeType` es el nombre de un tipo que
+*necesita* mantener esas garantías para ser seguro siempre que se use un puntero
+a ese tipo en un `Pin`.
+
+En otras palabras, hay dos cosas a tener en cuenta sobre la relación entre `Pin`
+y `Unpin`. Primero, `Unpin` es el caso “normal”, y `!Unpin` es el caso especial.
+En segundo lugar, si un tipo implementa `Unpin` o `!Unpin` *solo* importa cuando
+se usa un puntero pineado a ese tipo como `Pin<&mut SomeType>`.
+
+Para hacerlo concreto, piensa en un `String`: tiene una longitud y los caracteres
+Unicode que lo componen. Podemos envolver un `String` en `Pin`, como se ve en la
+Figura 17-8. Sin embargo, `String` implementa automáticamente `Unpin`, igual que
+la mayoría de los otros tipos en Rust.
+
+<figure>
+
+<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-08.svg" class="center" />
+
+<figcaption>Figura 17-8: Pineando un String, con una línea punteada que indica que el String implementa el trait `Unpin`, por lo que no está pineado.</figcaption>
+
+</figure>
+
+Como resultado, podemos hacer cosas que serían ilegales si `String` implementara
+`!Unpin` en su lugar, como reemplazar una cadena con otra en la misma ubicación
+exacta en memoria como en la Figura 17-9. ¡Esto no viola el contrato de `Pin`,
+porque `String` no tiene referencias internas que lo hagan inseguro de moverse!
+¡Eso es precisamente por qué implementa `Unpin` en lugar de `!Unpin`.
+
+<figure>
+
+<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-09.svg" class="center" />
+
+<figcaption>Figura 17-9: Reemplazando el String con un String completamente diferente en memoria.</figcaption>
+
+</figure>
+
+Ahora sabemos lo suficiente para entender los errores reportados para esa 
+llamada `join_all` de vuelta en el Listado 17-17. Originalmente intentamos mover
+los futuros producidos por bloques async en un 
+`Vec<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>>`, pero como hemos visto, esos futuros pueden
+tener referencias internas, por lo que no implementan `Unpin`. Necesitan ser
+pineados, y luego podemos pasar el tipo `Pin` en el `Vec`, con la confianza de
+que los datos subyacentes en los futuros *no* se moverán.
+
+`Pin` y `Unpin` son principalmente importantes para construir bibliotecas de
+nivel inferior, o cuando estás construyendo un tiempo de ejecución en sí mismo,
+en lugar de para el código Rust diario. ¡Cuando veas estos traits en mensajes de
+error, ahora tendrás una mejor idea de cómo arreglar el código!
+
+> Nota: Esta combinación de `Pin` y `Unpin` permite que una clase completa de
+> tipos complejos sea segura en Rust que de otra manera serían difíciles de
+> implementar porque son auto-referenciales. Los tipos que requieren `Pin`
+> aparecen *más* comúnmente en Rust asíncrono hoy en día, pero podrías —¡muy
+> raramente!— verlo en otros contextos, también.
+>
+> Los detalles de cómo funcionan `Pin` y `Unpin`, y las reglas que deben 
+> cumplir, están cubiertos extensamente en la documentación de la API para
+> `std::pin`, así que si quieres entenderlos más profundamente, ese es un buen
+> lugar para empezar.
+>
+> Si quieres entender cómo funcionan las cosas “bajo el capó” con aún más
+> detalle, el libro oficial [_Programación Asíncrona en Rust_][async-book] te
+> tiene cubierto:
+>
+> - [Capítulo 2: Bajo el capó: Ejecutando Futuros y Tareas][under-the-hood]
+> - [Capítulo 4: Pineado][pinning]
+
+### El trait Stream
+
+Ahora que tenemos un conocimiento más profundo sobre los traits `Future`, `Pin`
+y `Unpin`, podemos dirigir nuestra atención al trait `Stream`. Como se describe
+en la sección que introduce los streams, los streams son similares a los
+iteradores asíncronos. A diferencia de `Iterator` y `Future`, no hay una
+definición de un trait `Stream` en la biblioteca estándar en el momento de la
+escritura, pero *sí* hay una definición muy común del crate `futures` que se
+usa en todo el ecosistema.
+
+Repasemos las definiciones de los traits `Iterator` y `Future`, para que podamos
+construir cómo podría verse un trait `Stream` que los combine. De `Iterator`,
+tenemos la idea de una secuencia: su método `next` proporciona un
+`Option<Self::Item>`. De `Future`, tenemos la idea de preparación a lo largo del
+tiempo: su método `poll` proporciona un `Poll<Self::Output>`. Para representar
+una secuencia de elementos que se vuelven listos con el tiempo, definimos un
+trait `Stream` que junta esas características:
+
+```rust
+use std::pin::Pin;
+use std::task::{Context, Poll};
+
+trait Stream {
+    type Item;
+
+    fn poll_next(
+        self: Pin<&mut Self>,
+        cx: &mut Context<'_>
+    ) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>>;
+}
+```
+
+El trait `Stream` define un tipo asociado `Item` para el tipo de los elementos
+producidos por el stream. Esto es similar a `Iterator`: puede haber de cero a
+muchos de estos, y a diferencia de `Future`, donde siempre hay un solo `Output`
+(aunque sea el tipo unitario `()`).
+
+`Stream` también define un método para obtener esos elementos. Lo llamamos
+`poll_next`, para dejar claro que encuesta de la misma manera que `Future::poll`
+y produce una secuencia de elementos de la misma manera que `Iterator::next`.
+Su tipo de retorno combina `Poll` con `Option`. El tipo externo es `Poll`,
+porque tiene que ser comprobado para la preparación, al igual que un futuro. El
+tipo interno es `Option`, porque necesita señalar si hay más mensajes, al igual
+que un iterador.
+
+Algo muy similar a esto probablemente terminará estandarizado como parte de la
+biblioteca estándar de Rust. Mientras tanto, es parte del kit de herramientas
+de la mayoría de los tiempos de ejecución, por lo que puedes confiar en él, y
+todo lo que cubrimos a continuación debería aplicarse en general!
+
+En el ejemplo que vimos en la sección sobre streaming, sin embargo, no usamos
+`poll_next` *ni* `Stream`, sino que usamos `next` y `StreamExt`. *Podríamos*
+trabajar directamente en términos de la API `poll_next` escribiendo a mano
+nuestras propias máquinas de estados `Stream`, por supuesto, al igual que
+*podríamos* trabajar con futuros directamente a través de su método `poll`.
+Usar `await` es mucho más agradable, sin embargo, por lo que el trait 
+`StreamExt` suministra el método `next` para que podamos hacer precisamente eso.
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs:here}}
+```
+
+<!--
+TODO: update this if/when tokio/etc. update their MSRV and switch to using async functions
+in traits, since the lack thereof is the reason they do not yet have this.
+-->
+
+> Nota: La definición real que usamos anteriormente en el capítulo se ve
+> ligeramente diferente a esta, porque soporta versiones de Rust que aún no
+> soportaban el uso de funciones asíncronas en traits. Como resultado, se ve
+> así:
+>
+> ```rust,ignore
+> fn next(&mut self) -> Next<'_, Self> where Self: Unpin;
+> ```
+>
+> Ese tipo `Next` es una `struct` que implementa `Future` y proporciona una
+> forma de nombrar el tiempo de vida de la referencia a `self` con `Next<'_,
+> Self>`, para que `await` pueda trabajar con este método!
+
+El trait `StreamExt` también es el hogar de todos los métodos interesantes
+disponibles para usar con streams. `StreamExt` se implementa automáticamente 
+para cada tipo que implementa `Stream`, pero estos traits se definen por
+separado para que la comunidad pueda iterar sobre el trait fundamental de forma
+distinta de las APIs de conveniencia.
+
+En la versión de `StreamExt` utilizada en el crate `trpl`, el trait no solo
+define el método `next`, sino que también suministra una implementación de
+`next`, que maneja correctamente los detalles de llamar a `Stream::poll_next`.
+Esto significa que incluso cuando necesitas escribir tu propio tipo de datos de
+streaming, *solo* tienes que implementar `Stream`, y luego cualquiera que use
+tu tipo de datos puede usar `StreamExt` y sus métodos con él automáticamente.
+
+Eso es todo lo que vamos a cubrir para los detalles de nivel inferior sobre
+estos traits. Para terminar, ¡consideremos cómo encajan los futuros (incluidos
+los streams), las tareas y los hilos!
+
+[futures-syntax]: ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.html
+[counting]: ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.html
+[async-book]: https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/
+[under-the-hood]: https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/02_execution/01_chapter.html
+[pinning]: https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/04_pinning/01_chapter.html
+[first-async]: ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.html#our-first-async-program
+[any-number-futures]: ch17-03-more-futures.html#working-with-any-number-of-futures
diff --git a/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md b/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..35a2a28fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md
@@ -0,0 +1,154 @@
+## Futures, Tasks y Threads
+
+Como vimos en el capítulo anterior, los hilos proporcionan un enfoque para la 
+concurrencia. Hemos visto otro enfoque para la concurrencia en este capítulo, 
+usando async con futuros y flujos. Puede que te preguntes por qué elegirías uno 
+u otro. La respuesta es: ¡depende! Y en muchos casos, la elección no es hilos 
+*o* async, sino más bien hilos *y* async.
+
+Muchos sistemas operativos han proporcionado modelos de concurrencia basados en
+hilos durante décadas, y muchos lenguajes de programación los admiten como
+resultado. Sin embargo, no están exentos de sus compensaciones. En muchos
+sistemas operativos, utilizan una buena cantidad de memoria para cada hilo, y
+tienen ciertos costos de inicio y cierre. ¡Los hilos también son una opción solo
+cuando su sistema operativo y hardware los admiten! A diferencia de las
+computadoras de escritorio y móviles convencionales, algunos sistemas embebidos
+no tienen un sistema operativo en absoluto, ¡por lo que tampoco tienen hilos!
+
+El modelo async proporciona un conjunto diferente —y en última instancia
+complementario— de compensaciones. En el modelo async, las operaciones
+concurrentes no requieren sus propios hilos. En su lugar, pueden ejecutarse en
+tareas, como cuando usamos `trpl::spawn_task` para iniciar el trabajo desde una
+función síncrona a lo largo de la sección de flujos. Una tarea es similar a un
+hilo, pero en lugar de ser administrada por el sistema operativo, es 
+administrada por código a nivel de biblioteca: el tiempo de ejecución.
+
+En la sección anterior, vimos que podíamos construir un `Stream` usando un canal
+async y lanzando una tarea async que podíamos llamar desde el código síncrono.
+¡Podríamos hacer exactamente lo mismo con un hilo! En el Listado 17-40, usamos
+`trpl::spawn_task` y `trpl::sleep`. En el Listado 17-41, reemplazamos esos con
+las API `thread::spawn` y `thread::sleep` de la biblioteca estándar en la 
+función `get_intervals`.
+
+<Listing number="17-41" caption="Usar las API `std::thread` en lugar de las API async `trpl` para la función `get_intervals`" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs:threads}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+Si ejecutas esto, la salida es idéntica. ¡Y fíjate en cuánto cambia aquí desde
+la perspectiva del código que llama! Además, aunque una de nuestras funciones
+lanzó una tarea async en el tiempo de ejecución y la otra lanzó un hilo del
+sistema operativo, los flujos resultantes no se vieron afectados por las
+diferencias.
+
+A pesar de las similitudes, estos dos enfoques se comportan de manera muy
+diferente, aunque podríamos tener dificultades para medirlo en este ejemplo muy
+simple. Podríamos lanzar millones de tareas async en cualquier computadora
+personal moderna. ¡Si intentáramos hacer eso con hilos, literalmente nos 
+quedaríamos sin memoria!
+
+Sin embargo, hay una razón por la que estas API son tan similares. Los hilos
+actúan como un límite para conjuntos de operaciones síncronas; la concurrencia 
+es posible *entre* hilos. Las tareas actúan como un límite para conjuntos de
+operaciones *asíncronas*; la concurrencia es posible tanto *entre* como *dentro*
+de las tareas, porque una tarea puede cambiar entre futuros en su cuerpo.
+Finalmente, los futuros son la unidad de concurrencia más granular de Rust, y
+cada futuro puede representar un árbol de otros futuros. El tiempo de ejecución
+— específicamente, su ejecutor — administra las tareas, y las tareas administran
+los futuros. En ese sentido, las tareas son similares a hilos livianos
+administrados por el tiempo de ejecución con capacidades adicionales que 
+provienen de ser administrados por un tiempo de ejecución en lugar del sistema
+operativo.
+
+Esto no significa que las tareas async siempre sean mejores que los hilos, al
+igual que los hilos no siempre son mejores que las tareas.
+
+La concurrencia con hilos es en ciertos aspectos un modelo de programación más
+simple que la concurrencia con `async`. Eso puede ser una fortaleza o una
+debilidad. Los hilos son algo así como “disparar y olvidar”, no tienen un
+equivalente nativo a un futuro, por lo que simplemente se ejecutan hasta su
+finalización, sin interrupciones excepto por el sistema operativo en sí mismo.
+Es decir, no tienen soporte integrado para la *concurrencia intra-tarea* de la
+forma en que lo hacen los futuros. Los hilos en Rust tampoco tienen mecanismos
+para la cancelación —un tema que no hemos cubierto en profundidad en este
+capítulo, pero que es implícito en el hecho de que cada vez que terminamos un
+futuro, su estado se limpió correctamente.
+
+Estas limitaciones también hacen que los hilos sean más difíciles de componer 
+que los futuros. Es mucho más difícil, por ejemplo, usar hilos para construir
+ayudantes como el `timeout` que construimos en [“Construyendo nuestras propias
+abstracciones async”][combining-futures] o el método `throttle` que usamos con
+flujos en [“Componiendo flujos”][streams]. El hecho de que los futuros sean
+estructuras de datos más ricas significa que se pueden componer de manera más
+natural, como hemos visto.
+
+Las tareas dan *control adicional* sobre los futuros, permitiéndote elegir dónde
+y cómo agrupar los futuros. Y resulta que los hilos y las tareas a menudo
+funcionan muy bien juntos, porque las tareas pueden (al menos en algunos
+tiempos de ejecución) moverse entre hilos. No lo hemos mencionado hasta ahora,
+pero bajo el capó, el `Runtime` que hemos estado usando, incluidas las funciones
+`spawn_blocking` y `spawn_task`, es multihilo de forma predeterminada. ¡Muchos
+tiempos de ejecución utilizan un enfoque llamado *robo de trabajo* para mover
+tareas de manera transparente entre hilos basándose en la utilización actual de
+los hilos, con el objetivo de mejorar el rendimiento general del sistema. Para
+construir eso, en realidad se requieren hilos *y* tareas, y por lo tanto
+futuros.
+
+Como una forma predeterminada de pensar es cuando:
+
+- Si el trabajo es *muy paralelizable*, como procesar un montón de datos donde
+  cada parte puede procesarse por separado, los hilos son una mejor elección.
+- Si el trabajo es *muy concurrente*, como manejar mensajes de un montón de
+  fuentes diferentes que pueden llegar en intervalos o tasas diferentes, async
+  es una mejor elección.
+
+Y si necesitas una mezcla de paralelismo y concurrencia, no tienes que elegir
+entre hilos y async. Puedes usarlos juntos libremente, dejando que cada uno
+sirva la parte en la que es mejor. Por ejemplo, el Listado 17-42 muestra un
+ejemplo bastante común de este tipo de mezcla en código Rust del mundo real.
+
+<Listing number="17-42" caption="Enviar mensajes con código bloqueante en un hilo y esperar los mensajes en un bloque async" file-name="src/main.rs">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-42/src/main.rs:all}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
+
+Comenzamos creando un canal async. Luego lanzamos un hilo que toma posesión del
+lado emisor del canal. Dentro del hilo, enviamos los números del 1 al 10, y
+dormimos durante un segundo entre cada uno. Finalmente, ejecutamos un futuro
+creado con un bloque async pasado a `trpl::run` tal como lo hemos hecho a lo
+largo del capítulo. En ese futuro, esperamos esos mensajes, al igual que en los
+otros ejemplos de paso de mensajes que hemos visto.
+
+Para volver a los ejemplos con los que abrimos el capítulo: podrías imaginar
+ejecutar un conjunto de tareas de codificación de video usando un hilo
+dedicado, porque la codificación de video está limitada por la computación, pero
+notificar a la interfaz de usuario que esas operaciones se han completado con un
+canal async. ¡Los ejemplos de este tipo de mezcla abundan!
+
+## Resumen
+
+Esto no es lo último que verás de la concurrencia en este libro: el proyecto en
+el Capítulo 21 utilizará los conceptos de este capítulo en una situación más
+realista que los ejemplos más pequeños discutidos aquí —y comparará de manera
+más directa cómo se ve resolver este tipo de problemas con hilos vs. con tareas 
+y futuros.
+
+Ya sea con hilos, con futuros y tareas, o con la combinación de todos ellos, 
+Rust te brinda las herramientas que necesitas para escribir código concurrente
+seguro y rápido —ya sea para un servidor web de alto rendimiento o un sistema
+operativo embebido.
+
+A continuación, hablaremos sobre formas idiomáticas de modelar problemas y
+estructurar soluciones a medida que tus programas Rust se vuelven más grandes.
+Además, discutiremos cómo se relacionan los ídolos de Rust con los que podrías
+estar familiarizado de la programación orientada a objetos.
+
+
+[combining-futures]: ch17-03-more-futures.html#building-our-own-async-abstractions
+[streams]: ch17-04-streams.html#composing-streams
diff --git a/src/ch17-00-oop.md b/src/ch18-00-oop.md
similarity index 100%
rename from src/ch17-00-oop.md
rename to src/ch18-00-oop.md
diff --git a/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md b/src/ch18-01-what-is-oo.md
similarity index 93%
rename from src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md
rename to src/ch18-01-what-is-oo.md
index 1a99e84dc..92240008f 100644
--- a/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md
+++ b/src/ch18-01-what-is-oo.md
@@ -44,34 +44,31 @@ contiene un vector de valores `i32`. El struct también puede tener un campo que
 contiene el promedio de los valores en el vector, lo que significa que el
 promedio no tiene que calcularse a pedido cada vez que alguien lo necesite. En
 otras palabras, `AveragedCollection` almacenará en caché el promedio calculado
-para nosotros. El Listado 17-1 tiene la definición del struct
+para nosotros. El Listado 18-1 tiene la definición del struct
 `AveragedCollection`:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-1" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Un struct `AveragedCollection` que mantiene una lista de enteros y el promedio de los elementos en la colección">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-1: Un struct `AveragedCollection` que
-mantiene una lista de enteros y el promedio de los elementos en la colección
-</span>
+</Listing>
 
 El struct está marcado como `pub` para que otro código pueda usarlo, pero los
 campos dentro del struct permanecen privados. Esto es importante en este caso
 porque queremos asegurarnos de que cada vez que se agrega o elimina un valor de
 la lista, el promedio también se actualiza. Hacemos esto implementando los
 métodos públicos `add`, `remove` y `average` en el struct, como se muestra en
-el Listado 17-2:
+el Listado 18-2:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-2" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Implementaciones de los métodos públicos `add`, `remove`, y `average` en `AveragedCollection`">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-2: Implementaciones de los métodos públicos
-`add`, `remove`, y `average` en `AveragedCollection`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Los métodos públicos `add`, `remove`, y `average` son las únicas formas de
 acceder o modificar los datos en una instancia de `AveragedCollection`. Cuando
diff --git a/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md b/src/ch18-02-trait-objects.md
similarity index 82%
rename from src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md
rename to src/ch18-02-trait-objects.md
index 2e6d77ab7..7e0f17d6d 100644
--- a/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md
+++ b/src/ch18-02-trait-objects.md
@@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ como a una tabla utilizada para buscar métodos de trait en ese tipo en tiempo
 de ejecución. Creamos un objeto de trait especificando algún tipo de puntero,
 como una referencia `&` o un puntero inteligente `Box<T>`, luego la palabra
 clave `dyn` y luego especificando el trait relevante. (Hablaremos sobre la
-razón por la que los objetos de trait deben usar un puntero en el Capítulo 19
+razón por la que los objetos de trait deben usar un puntero en el Capítulo 20
 en la sección [“Tipos de tamaño dinámico y el
 trait `Sized`.”][dynamically-sized]<!-- ignore -->) Podemos usar objetos de
 trait en lugar de un tipo genérico o concreto. Donde sea que usemos un objeto
@@ -71,46 +71,43 @@ agregar datos a un objeto de trait. Los objetos de trait no son tan útiles en
 general como los objetos en otros lenguajes: su propósito específico es
 permitir la abstracción a través del comportamiento común.
 
-El Listado 17-3 muestra cómo definir un trait llamado `Draw` con un método
+El Listado 18-3 muestra cómo definir un trait llamado `Draw` con un método
 llamado `draw`:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-3" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Definición del trait `Draw`">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-3: Definición del trait `Draw`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Esta sintaxis debería verse familiar de nuestras discusiones sobre cómo
 definir traits en el Capítulo 10. A continuación viene una sintaxis nueva: el
-Listado 17-4 define un struct llamado `Screen` que contiene un vector llamado
+Listado 18-4 define un struct llamado `Screen` que contiene un vector llamado
 `components`. Este vector es de tipo `Box<dyn Draw>`, que es un objeto de
 trait; es un sustituto de cualquier tipo dentro de una `Box` que implementa el
 trait `Draw`.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-4" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Definición del struct `Screen` con un campo `components` que contiene un vector de trait objects que implementan el trait `Draw`">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-4: Definición del struct `Screen` con un campo
-`components` que contiene un vector de trait objects que implementan el trait
-`Draw`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 En el struct `Screen` hemos definido un método llamado `run` que llamará al
 método `draw` en cada uno de sus `components`, como se muestra en el Listado
-17-5:
+18-5:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-5" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Un método `run` en `Screen` que llama al método `draw` en cada componente">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-5: Un método `run` en `Screen` que llama al
-método `draw` en cada componente</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Esto funciona de manera diferente a la definición de un struct que usa un
 parámetro de tipo generic con trait bound. Un parámetro de tipo generic
@@ -118,16 +115,15 @@ solo se puede sustituir con un tipo concreto a la vez, mientras que los
 trait objects permiten que varios tipos concretos llenen el trait object
 en tiempo de ejecución. Por ejemplo, podríamos haber definido el struct
 `Screen` usando un parámetro de tipo generic y un trait bound como en el
-Listado 17-6:
+Listado 18-6:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-6" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Una implementación alternativa del struct `Screen` y su método `run` usando generics y trait bounds">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-6: Una implementación alternativa del struct
-`Screen` y su método `run` usando generics y trait bounds</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Esto nos restringe a una instancia de `Screen` que tiene una lista de
 componentes de tipo `Button` o de tipo `TextField`. Si solo tendrá
@@ -147,16 +143,15 @@ Proporcionaremos el tipo `Button`. Nuevamente, implementar una biblioteca GUI
 está más allá del alcance de este libro, por lo que el método `draw` no tendrá
 ninguna implementación útil en su cuerpo. Para imaginar cómo podría ser la
 implementación, un struct `Button` podría tener campos para `width`, `height`
-y `label`, como se muestra en el Listado 17-7:
+y `label`, como se muestra en el Listado 18-7:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-7" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Un `Button` que implementa el trait `Draw`">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-7: Un `Button` que implementa el trait
-`Draw`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Los campos `width`, `height` y `label` en `Button` serán diferentes de los
 campos en otros componentes; por ejemplo, un tipo `TextField` podría tener
@@ -172,32 +167,30 @@ como `TextField`.
 Si alguien que utiliza nuestra biblioteca decide implementar un struct
 `SelectBox` que tiene campos `width`, `height` y `options`, también
 implementará el trait `Draw` en el tipo `SelectBox`, como se muestra en el
-Listado 17-8:
+Listado 18-8:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-8" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Otro crate usando `gui` e implementando el trait `Draw` en un struct `SelectBox`">
 
 ```rust,ignore
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-8: Otro crate usando `gui` e implementando
-el trait `Draw` en un struct `SelectBox`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 El usuario de nuestra biblioteca ahora puede escribir su función `main` para
 crear una instancia de `Screen`. A la instancia de `Screen`, pueden agregar
 un `SelectBox` y un `Button` colocando cada uno en una `Box<T>` para
 convertirse en un trait object. Luego pueden llamar al método `run` en la
 instancia de `Screen`, que llamará a `draw` en cada uno de los componentes.
-El Listado 17-9 muestra esta implementación:
+El Listado 18-9 muestra esta implementación:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-9" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Usando trait objects para almacenar valores de diferentes tipos que implementan el mismo trait">
 
 ```rust,ignore
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-9: Usando trait objects para almacenar valores
-de diferentes tipos que implementan el mismo trait</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Cuando escribimos la biblioteca, no sabíamos que alguien podría agregar el tipo
 `SelectBox`, pero nuestra implementación de `Screen` pudo operar en el nuevo
@@ -208,7 +201,7 @@ Este concepto, de preocuparnos solo por los mensajes a los que responde un valor
 en lugar del tipo concreto del valor, es similar al concepto de _duck typing_ en
 lenguajes de tipado dinámico: si camina como un pato y grazna como un pato,
 ¡entonces debe ser un pato! En la implementación de `run` en `Screen` en el
-Listado 17-5, `run` no necesita saber cuál es el tipo concreto de cada
+Listado 18-5, `run` no necesita saber cuál es el tipo concreto de cada
 componente. No verifica si un componente es una instancia de un `Button` o de
 un `SelectBox`, simplemente llama al método `draw` en el componente. Al
 especificar `Box<dyn Draw>` como el tipo de los valores en el vector
@@ -222,22 +215,21 @@ o preocuparnos por obtener errores si un valor no implementa un método, pero lo
 llamamos de todos modos. Rust no compilará nuestro código si los valores no
 implementan los traits que necesitan los trait objects.
 
-Por ejemplo, el Listado 17-10 muestra lo que sucede si intentamos crear una
+Por ejemplo, el Listado 18-10 muestra lo que sucede si intentamos crear una
 `Screen` con un `String` como componente:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-10" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Intentando utilizar un tipo que no implementa the trait del trait object">
 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-10: Intentando utilizar un tipo que no
-implementa the trait del trait object</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Obtendremos este error porque `String` no implementa el trait `Draw`:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 Este error nos indica que o bien estamos pasando algo a `Screen` que no
@@ -266,8 +258,8 @@ para saber qué método llamar. Esta búsqueda incurre en un costo de tiempo de
 ejecución que no ocurre con el static dispatch. Dynamic dispatch también evita
 que el compilador elija la opción de _inline_ del código de un método, lo que a
 su vez evita algunas optimizaciones. Sin embargo, obtuvimos flexibilidad
-adicional en el código que escribimos en el Listado 17-5 y pudimos admitir en
-el Listado 17-9, por lo que es un compromiso a considerar.
+adicional en el código que escribimos en el Listado 18-5 y pudimos admitir en
+el Listado 18-9, por lo que es un compromiso a considerar.
 
 [rendimiento-de-codigo-usando-genericos]: ch10-01-syntax.html#rendimiento-de-codigo-usando-genericos
-[dynamically-sized]: ch19-04-advanced-types.html#tipos-de-tamano-dinamico-y-el-trait-sized
+[dynamically-sized]: ch20-04-advanced-types.html#tipos-de-tamano-dinamico-y-el-trait-sized
diff --git a/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md b/src/ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md
similarity index 86%
rename from src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md
rename to src/ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md
index 21764b9ae..638ebe4d3 100644
--- a/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md
+++ b/src/ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md
@@ -40,19 +40,18 @@ tener ningún efecto. Por ejemplo, si intentamos aprobar un borrador de blog
 antes de haber solicitado una revisión, la publicación debería seguir siendo
 un borrador no publicado.
 
-El Listado 17-11 muestra este flujo de trabajo en forma de código: este es un
+El Listado 18-11 muestra este flujo de trabajo en forma de código: este es un
 ejemplo de uso de la API que implementaremos en una crate de biblioteca
 llamada `blog`. Esto aún no se compilará porque no hemos implementado el crate
 de biblioteca `blog`.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-11" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Código que demuestra el comportamiento deseado que queremos que tenga nuestro crate `blog`">
 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/src/main.rs:all}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/src/main.rs:all}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-11: Código que demuestra el comportamiento
-deseado que queremos que tenga nuestro crate `blog`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Queremos permitir que el usuario cree una nueva publicación de blog en borrador
 con `Post::new`. Queremos permitir que se agregue texto a la publicación del
@@ -84,7 +83,7 @@ se revise.
 ¡Comencemos con la implementación de la biblioteca! Sabemos que necesitamos
 un struct `Post` público que contenga algún contenido, por lo que comenzaremos
 con la definición del struct y una función pública `new` asociada para crear
-una instancia de `Post`, como se muestra en el Listado 17-12. También haremos
+una instancia de `Post`, como se muestra en el Listado 18-12. También haremos
 un trait privado `State` que definirá el comportamiento que todos los objetos
 de estado para un `Post` deben tener.
 
@@ -92,15 +91,13 @@ Luego, `Post` contendrá un trait object de `Box<dyn State>` dentro de un campo
 privado llamado `state` para mantener el state object. Verás por qué
 `Option<T>` es necesario en un momento.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-12" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Definición de un struct `Post` y una función `new` que crea una nueva instancia de `Post`, un trait `State`, y un struct `Draft`">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-12: Definición de un struct `Post` y una
-función `new` que crea una nueva instancia de `Post`, un trait `State`, y un
-struct `Draft`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 El trait `State` define el comportamiento compartido por los diferentes estados
 de una publicación. Los state objects son `Draft`, `PendingReview` y
@@ -117,22 +114,21 @@ comenzará como un borrador. Debido a que el campo `state` de `Post` es privado,
 
 ### Almacenando el texto del contenido del post
 
-Vimos en el Listado 17-11 que queremos poder llamar a un método llamado
+Vimos en el Listado 18-11 que queremos poder llamar a un método llamado
 `add_text` y pasarle un `&str` que luego se agregará como el contenido de texto
 de la publicación del blog. Implementaremos esto como un método, en lugar de
 exponer el campo `content` como `pub`, para que más tarde podamos implementar
 un método que controlará cómo se lee el campo `content`. El método `add_text`
-es bastante sencillo, así que agreguemos la implementación en el Listado 17-13
+es bastante sencillo, así que agreguemos la implementación en el Listado 18-13
 al bloque `impl Post`:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-13" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Implementando el método `add_text` para agregar texto al campo `content` de una publicación">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-13: Implementando el método `add_text` para
-agregar texto al campo `content` de una publicación</span>
+</Listing>
 
 El método `add_text` toma una referencia mutable a `self` porque estamos
 cambiando la instancia de `Post` en la que estamos llamando `add_text`. Luego
@@ -147,41 +143,38 @@ parte del comportamiento que queremos admitir.
 Incluso después de que hayamos llamado `add_text` y agregado algún contenido a
 nuestra publicación, todavía queremos que el método `content` devuelva un slice
 de string vacío porque la publicación todavía está en el estado de borrador,
-como se muestra en la línea 7 del Listado 17-11. Por ahora, implementemos el
+como se muestra en la línea 7 del Listado 18-11. Por ahora, implementemos el
 método `content` con lo más simple que cumplirá con este requisito: siempre
 devolver un string slice vacío. Lo cambiaremos más tarde una vez que
 implementemos la capacidad de cambiar el estado de una publicación para que
 pueda publicarse. Hasta ahora, las publicaciones solo pueden estar en el estado
 de borrador, por lo que el contenido de la publicación siempre debe estar
-vacío. El Listado 17-14 muestra esta implementación de marcador de posición:
+vacío. El Listado 18-14 muestra esta implementación de marcador de posición:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-14" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Agregando una implementación provisional para el método `content` en `Post` que siempre devuelve un string slice vacío">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-14: Agregando una implementación provisional
-para el método `content` en `Post` que siempre devuelve un string slice vacío
-</span>
+</Listing>
 
-Con este método `content` añadido, todo en el Listado 17-11 hasta la línea 7
+Con este método `content` añadido, todo en el Listado 18-11 hasta la línea 7
 funciona como se pretendía.
 
 ### Solicitar una revisión de los cambios de publicación de su estado
 
 A continuación, necesitamos agregar funcionalidad para solicitar una revisión
 de una publicación, lo que debería cambiar su estado de `Draft` a
-`PendingReview`. El Listado 17-15 muestra este código:
+`PendingReview`. El Listado 18-15 muestra este código:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-15" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Implementando los métodos `request_review` en `Post` y el trait `State`">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-15: Implementando los métodos `request_review`
-en `Post` y el trait `State`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Agregamos un método público llamado `request_review` a `Post` que toma una
 referencia mutable a `self`. Luego llamamos a un método interno `request_review`
@@ -225,7 +218,7 @@ estado es responsable de sus propias reglas.
 Dejaremos el método `content` en `Post` tal como está, devolviendo un string
 slice vacío. Ahora podemos tener un `Post` en el estado `PendingReview` así
 como en el estado `Draft`, pero queremos el mismo comportamiento en el estado
-`PendingReview`. ¡El Listado 17-11 ahora funciona hasta la línea 10!
+`PendingReview`. ¡El Listado 18-11 ahora funciona hasta la línea 10!
 
 <!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. -->
 
@@ -235,16 +228,15 @@ como en el estado `Draft`, pero queremos el mismo comportamiento en el estado
 
 El método `approve` será similar al método `request_review`: establecerá el
 valor de `state` al estado que el estado actual indique que debería tener
-cuando ese estado sea aprobado, como se muestra en el Listado 17-16:
+cuando ese estado sea aprobado, como se muestra en el Listado 18-16:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-16" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Implementando el método `approve` en `Post` y el trait `State`">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-16: Implementando el método `approve` en
-`Post` y el trait `State`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Agregamos el método `approve` al trait `State` y agregamos un nuevo struct
 que implementa el trait `State`, el estado `Published`.
@@ -260,16 +252,15 @@ en el estado `Published` en esos casos.
 Ahora debemos actualizar el método `content` en `Post`. Queremos que el valor
 devuelto por `content` dependa del estado actual de `Post`, por lo que vamos
 a hacer que `Post` delegue a un método `content` definido en su `state`, como
-se muestra en el Listado 17-17:
+se muestra en el Listado 18-17:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-17" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Actualizando el método `content` en `Post` para delegar en un método `content` en `State`">
 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-17: Actualizando el método `content` en `Post`
-para delegar en un método `content` en `State`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Debido a que el objetivo es mantener todas estas reglas dentro de los structs
 que implementan `State`, llamamos a un método `content` en el valor en `state`
@@ -298,14 +289,13 @@ que debemos agregar `content` a la definición del trait `State`, y allí es
 donde pondremos la lógica para qué contenido devolver dependiendo de qué
 estado tengamos, como se muestra en el Listado 17-18:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-18" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Agregando el método `content` al trait `State`">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-18: Agregando el método `content` al trait
-`State`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Agregamos una implementación predeterminada para el método `content` que
 devuelve un string slice vacío. Eso significa que no necesitamos implementar
@@ -318,7 +308,7 @@ como argumento y devolviendo una referencia a una parte de ese `post`, por lo
 que el lifetime de la referencia devuelta está relacionado con el tiempo
 de vida del argumento `post`.
 
-¡Y hemos terminado! ¡Todo lo que se muestra en el Listado 17-11 ahora funciona!
+¡Y hemos terminado! ¡Todo lo que se muestra en el Listado 18-11 ahora funciona!
 Hemos implementado el patrón de estado con las reglas del flujo de trabajo de
 la publicación de blog. La lógica relacionada con las reglas vive en los
 objetos de estado en lugar de estar dispersa en `Post`.
@@ -390,7 +380,7 @@ implementación del mismo método en el valor del campo `state` de `Option` y
 establecen el nuevo valor del campo `state` en el resultado. Si tuviéramos
 muchos métodos en `Post` que siguieran este patrón, podríamos considerar
 definir un macro para eliminar la repetición (ver la sección [“Macros”][macros]
-en el Capítulo 19).
+en el Capítulo 20).
 
 Al implementar el State Pattern exactamente como se define en lenguajes
 orientados a objetos, no estamos aprovechando al máximo las fortalezas de Rust.
@@ -408,14 +398,16 @@ sistema de verificación de tipos de Rust evitará los intentos de usar
 publicaciones borradores donde solo se permiten publicaciones publicadas
 emitiendo un error del compilador.
 
-Consideremos la primera parte de `main` en el Listado 17-11:
+Consideremos la primera parte de `main` en el Listado 18-11:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing file-name="src/main.rs">
 
 ```rust,ignore
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
+</Listing>
+
 Todavía permitimos la creación de nuevas publicaciones en el estado de borrador
 usando `Post::new` y la capacidad de agregar texto al contenido de la
 publicación. Pero en lugar de tener un método `content` en una publicación en
@@ -425,17 +417,16 @@ intentamos obtener el contenido de una publicación en borrador, obtendremos un
 error del compilador que nos dice que el método no existe. Como resultado,
 será imposible mostrar accidentalmente el contenido de la publicación en
 borrador en producción, porque ese código ni siquiera se compilará. El Listado
-17-9 muestra la definición de un struct `Post` y un struct `DraftPost`, así
+18-9 muestra la definición de un struct `Post` y un struct `DraftPost`, así
 como métodos en cada uno:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-19" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Un `Post` con un método `content` y un `DraftPost` sin un método `content`">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-19/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-19/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-19: Un `Post` con un método `content` y un
-`DraftPost` sin un método `content`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Tanto los structs `Post` como `DraftPost` tienen un campo privado `content`
 que almacena el texto de la publicación del blog. Los structs ya no tienen el
@@ -465,17 +456,15 @@ todavía no debe mostrar ningún contenido. Implementemos estas restricciones
 agregando otro struct, `PendingReviewPost`, definiendo el método `request_review`
 en `DraftPost` para devolver un `PendingReviewPost`, y definiendo un método
 `approve` en `PendingReviewPost` para devolver un `Post`, como se muestra en
-el Listado 17-20:
+el Listado 18-20:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-20" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Un `PendingReviewPost` que se crea llamando a `request_review` en `DraftPost` y un método `approve` que convierte un `PendingReviewPost` en un `Post` publicado">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-20/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-20/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-20: Un `PendingReviewPost` que se crea
-llamando a `request_review` en `DraftPost` y un método `approve` que convierte
-un `PendingReviewPost` en un `Post` publicado</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Los métodos `request_review` y `approve` toman ownership de `self`, consumiendo
 así las instancias de `DraftPost` y `PendingReviewPost` y transformándolas en
@@ -497,16 +486,15 @@ sombreado `let post =` para guardar las instancias devueltas. Tampoco podemos
 tener las afirmaciones sobre el contenido de las publicaciones en borrador y
 revisión pendiente sean strings vacíos, ni los necesitamos: ya no podemos
 compilar el código que intenta usar el contenido de las publicaciones en esos
-estados. El código actualizado en `main` se muestra en el Listado 17-21:
+estados. El código actualizado en `main` se muestra en el Listado 18-21:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="18-21" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Modifications to `main` to use the new implementation of the blog post workflow">
 
 ```rust,ignore
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-21/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-21/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 17-21: Modificaciones a `main` para usar la nueva
-implementación del workflow de la publicación del blog</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Las modificaciones que hicimos a `main` para reasignar `post` significan que
 esta implementación ya no sigue el patrón de estado orientado a objetos: las
@@ -518,7 +506,7 @@ ciertos errores, como la visualización del contenido de una publicación no
 publicada, se descubrirán antes de que lleguen a producción.
 
 Prueba las tareas sugeridas al comienzo de esta sección en el crate `blog` tal
-como está después del Listado 17-21 para evaluar el diseño de esta versión del
+como está después del Listado 18-21 para evaluar el diseño de esta versión del
 código. Ten en cuenta que es posible que algunas de las tareas ya estén
 completadas en este diseño.
 
@@ -550,4 +538,4 @@ Rust que permiten mucha flexibilidad. Hemos visto brevemente los patterns a lo
 largo del libro, pero aún no hemos visto su capacidad total. ¡Vamos allá!
 
 [more-info-than-rustc]: ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html#casos-en-los-que-tienes-mas-informacion-que-el-compilador
-[macros]: ch19-06-macros.html#macros
+[macros]: ch20-06-macros.html#macros
diff --git a/src/ch18-00-patterns.md b/src/ch19-00-patterns.md
similarity index 100%
rename from src/ch18-00-patterns.md
rename to src/ch19-00-patterns.md
diff --git a/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md b/src/ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md
similarity index 74%
rename from src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md
rename to src/ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md
index 08b9dfdd8..b3c8a295b 100644
--- a/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md
+++ b/src/ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md
@@ -54,25 +54,24 @@ una forma más corta de escribir el equivalente de un `match` que solo coincide
 con un caso. Opcionalmente, `if let` puede tener un `else` correspondiente que
 contenga código para ejecutar si el patrón en el `if let` no coincide.
 
-El Listado 18-1 muestra que también es posible mezclar y combinar expresiones
+El Listado 19-1 muestra que también es posible mezclar y combinar expresiones
 `if let`, `else if` y `else if let`. Hacerlo nos da más flexibilidad que una
 expresión `match` en la que solo podemos expresar un valor para comparar con
 los patrones. Además, Rust no requiere que las condiciones en una serie de
 brazos `if let`, `else if`, `else if let` se relacionen entre sí.
 
-El código en el Listado 18-1 determina de qué color hacer su fondo en función
+El código en el Listado 19-1 determina de qué color hacer su fondo en función
 de una serie de comprobaciones para varias condiciones. Para este ejemplo,
 hemos creado variables con valores codificados que un programa real podría
 recibir de la entrada del usuario.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="19-1" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Combinando `if let`, `else if`, `else if let`, y `else`">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-01/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-01/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-1: Combinando
-`if let`, `else if`, `else if let`, y `else`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Si el usuario especifica un color favorito, ese color se usa como fondo. Si no
 se especifica un color favorito y hoy es martes, el color de fondo es verde.
@@ -100,43 +99,47 @@ casos, el compilador no nos alertaría sobre el posible bug de lógica.
 
 ### Bucles condicionales `while let`
 
-Similar en su construcción a `if let`, el bucle condicional `while let` permite
-que un bucle `while` se ejecute mientras un patrón continúe coincidiendo. En
-el Listado 18-2 codificamos un bucle `while let` que usa un vector como una
-pila e imprime los valores en el vector en el orden opuesto en el que se
-pusieron.
+Similar en su construcción a `if let`, el bucle condicional `while let` permite 
+que un bucle `while` se ejecute mientras un patrón continúe coincidiendo. Vimos 
+por primera vez un bucle `while let` en el Capítulo 17, donde lo usamos para 
+seguir iterando mientras un flujo producía nuevos valores. De manera similar, en 
+el Listado 19-2 mostramos un bucle `while let` que espera mensajes enviados 
+entre hilos, pero en este caso verificando un `Result` en lugar de una `Option`.
+
+<Listing number="19-2" caption="Usando un bucle `while let` para imprimir valores mientras `rx.recv()` devuelva `Ok`">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-02/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-02/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-2: Utilizando un bucle `while let` para
-imprimir valores mientras `stack.pop()` devuelva `Some`</span>
+</Listing>
 
-Este ejemplo imprime 3, 2 y luego 1. El método `pop` toma el último elemento
-del vector y devuelve `Some(value)`. Si el vector está vacío, `pop` devuelve
-`None`. El bucle `while` continúa ejecutando el código en su bloque siempre que
-`pop` devuelva `Some`. Cuando `pop` devuelve `None`, el bucle se detiene.
-Podemos usar `while let` para sacar todos los elementos de nuestra pila.
+Este ejemplo imprime 1, 2 y 3. Cuando vimos `recv` en el Capítulo 16, manejamos 
+el error directamente con `unwrap` o interactuamos con él como un iterador 
+usando un bucle `for`. Sin embargo, como muestra el Listado 19-2, también 
+podemos usar `while let`, ya que el método `recv` devuelve `Ok` mientras el 
+remitente siga produciendo mensajes, y luego genera un `Err` cuando el lado del 
+remitente se desconecta.
 
 ### Bucles `for`
 
 En un bucle `for`, el valor que sigue directamente a la palabra clave `for` es
-un pattern. Por ejemplo, en `for x in y` el `x` es el pattern. El Listado 18-3
+un pattern. Por ejemplo, en `for x in y` el `x` es el pattern. El Listado 19-3
 demuestra cómo usar un pattern en un bucle `for` para destruir, o romper, una
 tupla como parte del bucle `for`.
 
+<Listing number="19-3" caption="Usando un pattern en un bucle `for` para desestructurar una tupla">
+
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-3: Usando un pattern en un bucle `for` para
-desestructurar una tupla</span>
+</Listing>
 
-El código en el Listado 18-3 imprimirá lo siguiente:
+El código en el Listado 19-3 imprimirá lo siguiente:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 Adaptamos un iterator usando el método `enumerate` para que produzca un valor y
@@ -173,15 +176,16 @@ nombre `x` es todo el pattern, este pattern significa efectivamente “vincula
 todo a la variable `x`, sea cual sea el valor”.
 
 Para ver más claramente el aspecto de coincidencia de patrones de `let`,
-considera el Listado 18-4, que usa un pattern con `let` para destruir una
+considera el Listado 19-4, que usa un pattern con `let` para destruir una
 tupla.
 
+<Listing number="19-4" caption="Using a pattern to destructure a tuple and create three variables at once">
+
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-04/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-04/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-4: Usando un pattern para desestructurar una
-tupla y crear tres variables a la vez</span>
+<span class="caption">Listing 18-4: Usando un pattern para desestructurar una tupla y crear tres variables a la vez</span>
 
 Aquí, emparejamos una tupla con un pattern. Rust compara el valor `(1, 2, 3)`
 con el pattern `(x, y, z)` y ve que el valor y el pattern coinciden, por lo que
@@ -190,20 +194,21 @@ tupla anida tres patterns de variable individuales dentro de él.
 
 Si el número de elementos en el pattern no coincide con el número de elementos
 en la tupla, el tipo general no coincidirá y obtendremos un error del
-compilador. Por ejemplo, el Listado 18-5 muestra un intento de destruir una
+compilador. Por ejemplo, el Listado 19-5 muestra un intento de destruir una
 tupla con tres elementos en dos variables, lo cual no funcionará.
 
+<Listing number="19-5" caption="Al construir incorrectamente un pattern cuyas variables no coinciden con el número de elementos en la tupla">
+
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-5: Al construir incorrectamente un pattern
-cuyas variables no coinciden con el número de elementos en la tupla</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Intentar compilar este código resulta en este error de tipo:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 Para solucionar el error, podríamos ignorar uno o más valores en la tupla
@@ -216,28 +221,28 @@ número de elementos en la tupla.
 ### Parámetros de función
 
 Los parámetros de función también pueden ser patterns. El código del Listado
-18-6, que declara una función llamada `foo` que toma un parámetro llamado `x`
+19-6, que declara una función llamada `foo` que toma un parámetro llamado `x`
 de tipo `i32`, debería ser familiar a estas alturas.
 
+<Listing number="19-6" caption="La firma de una función que utiliza patterns en los parámetros">
+
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-6: La firma de una función que utiliza
-patterns en los parámetros</span>
+</Listing>
 
 ¡La parte `x` es un pattern! Como hicimos con `let`, podríamos hacer coincidir
-una tupla en los argumentos de una función con el pattern. El Listado 18-7
+una tupla en los argumentos de una función con el pattern. El Listado 19-7
 divide los valores en una tupla a medida que la pasamos a una función.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="19-7" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Una función con parámetros que desetructura una tupla">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-07/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-07/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-7: Una función con parámetros que desetructura
-una tupla</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Este código imprime `Current location: (3, 5)`. El valor `(3, 5)` coincide con
 el pattern `(x, y)`, por lo que `x` es `3` y `y` es `5`.
@@ -251,4 +256,4 @@ funcionarán de la misma manera en todos los lugares donde podemos usarlos. En
 algunos casos, los patrones deben ser irrefutables; en otras circunstancias,
 pueden ser refutables. Discutiremos estos dos conceptos a continuación.
 
-[ignoring-values-in-a-pattern]: ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html#ignorando-valores-en-un-patron
+[ignoring-values-in-a-pattern]: ch19-03-pattern-syntax.html#ignorando-valores-en-un-patron
diff --git a/src/ch18-02-refutability.md b/src/ch19-02-refutability.md
similarity index 82%
rename from src/ch18-02-refutability.md
rename to src/ch19-02-refutability.md
index 6496dc9b0..7e49b0981 100644
--- a/src/ch18-02-refutability.md
+++ b/src/ch19-02-refutability.md
@@ -25,16 +25,17 @@ esos casos, deberá cambiar el pattern o la construcción que está utilizando e
 pattern, según el comportamiento previsto del código.
 
 Veamos un ejemplo de lo que sucede cuando intentamos usar un pattern refutable
-donde Rust requiere un pattern irrefutable y viceversa. El Listado 18-8 muestra
+donde Rust requiere un pattern irrefutable y viceversa. El Listado 19-8 muestra
 una declaración `let`, pero para el pattern hemos especificado `Some(x)`, un
 pattern refutable. Como puede imaginar, este código no se compilará.
 
+<Listing number="19-8" caption="Intentando utilizar un pattern refutable con `let`">
+
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-8: Intentando utilizar un pattern refutable con
-`let`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Si `some_option_value` fuera un valor `None`, no coincidiría con el pattern
 `Some(x)`, lo que significa que el pattern es refutable. Sin embargo, la 
@@ -44,7 +45,7 @@ Rust se quejará de que hemos intentado usar un pattern refutable donde se
 requiere un pattern irrefutable:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 Debido a que no hemos cubierto (¡y no pudimos cubrir!) Cada valor válido con el
@@ -54,33 +55,35 @@ Si tenemos un pattern refutable donde se necesita un patrón irrefutable,
 podemos solucionarlo cambiando el código que utiliza el patrón: en lugar de 
 usar `let`, podemos usar `if let`. Entonces, si el pattern no coincide, el 
 código simplemente omitirá el código entre llaves, dándole una forma de 
-continuar válidamente. El Listado 18-9 muestra cómo solucionar el código del 
-Listado 18-8.
+continuar válidamente. El Listado 19-9 muestra cómo solucionar el código del 
+Listado 19-8.
+
+<Listing number="19-9" caption="Usando `if let` y un bloque con patterns refutables en lugar de `let`">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-09/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-09/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-9: Usando `if let` y un bloque con patterns 
-refutables en lugar de `let`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 ¡Le hemos dado una solución al código! Este código es perfectamente válido ahora.
 Sin embargo, significa que no podemos usar un pattern irrefutable sin recibir un
 error. Si le damos a `if let` un pattern que siempre coincidirá, como `x`, como
 se muestra en el Listado 18-10, el compilador dará una advertencia.
 
+<Listing number="19-10" caption="Intentando usar un pattern irrefutable con `if let`">
+
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-10: Intentando usar un pattern irrefutable
-con `if let`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Rust se queja de que no tiene sentido usar `if let` con un pattern 
 irrefutable:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 Por esta razón, las opciones del match deben usar patterns refutables, excepto
diff --git a/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md b/src/ch19-03-pattern-syntax.md
similarity index 77%
rename from src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md
rename to src/ch19-03-pattern-syntax.md
index ad0f8961c..ca5facc1d 100644
--- a/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md
+++ b/src/ch19-03-pattern-syntax.md
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ Como viste en el Capítulo 6, puedes hacer coincidir patterns contra literales
 directamente. El siguiente código da algunos ejemplos:
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
 Este código imprime `one` porque el valor en `x` es 1. Esta sintaxis es útil
@@ -24,19 +24,18 @@ complicación cuando usas variables nombradas en expresiones `match`. Debido a
 que `match` inicia un nuevo alcance, las variables declaradas como parte de un
 pattern dentro de la expresión `match` ocultarán aquellas con el mismo nombre
 fuera del constructo `match`, como es el caso de todas las variables. En el
-Listado 18-11, declaramos una variable llamada `x` con el valor `Some(5)` y una
+Listado 19-11, declaramos una variable llamada `x` con el valor `Some(5)` y una
 variable `y` con el valor `10`. Luego creamos una expresión `match` en el valor
 `x`. Mira los patterns en las opciones `match` y `println!` al final, e intenta
 averiguar qué imprimirá el código antes de ejecutar este código o leer más.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="19-11" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Una expresión `match` con una opción que introduce una variable sombreada (shadowing)">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-11/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-11/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-11: Una expresión `match` con una opción que
-introduce una variable sombreada (shadowing) `y`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Vamos a repasar lo que sucede cuando se ejecuta la expresión `match`. El pattern
 en la primera opción de `match` no coincide con el valor definido de `x`, por
@@ -77,7 +76,7 @@ coincide con cualquiera de los valores en esa opción, se ejecutará el código
 esa opción:
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
 Este código imprime `one or two`.
@@ -89,7 +88,7 @@ siguiente código, cuando un patrón coincide con cualquiera de los valores
 dentro del rango dado, esa opción se ejecutará:
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
 Si `x` es 1, 2, 3, 4 o 5, la primera opción coincidirá. Esta sintaxis es más
@@ -106,7 +105,7 @@ con valores numéricos o `char`.
 Aquí tienes un ejemplo que utiliza rangos de valores `char`:
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
 Rust puede determinar que `'c'` se encuentra dentro del rango especificado en
@@ -119,17 +118,16 @@ diferentes partes de estos valores. Veamos cada uno de ellos.
 
 #### Desestructurando Structs
 
-El Listado 18-12 muestra un struct `Point` con dos campos, `x` e `y`, que
+El Listado 19-12 muestra un struct `Point` con dos campos, `x` e `y`, que
 podemos desestructurar usando un pattern con una declaración `let`.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="19-12" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Desestructurando los campos de un struct en variables separadas">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-12/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-12: Desestructurando los campos de un struct
-en variables separadas</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Este código crear las variables `a` y `b` que coinciden con los valores de los
 campos `x` e `y` del struct `p`. Este ejemplo muestra que los nombres de las
@@ -140,18 +138,17 @@ de qué campos. Debido a este uso común, y porque escribir `let Point { x: x, y
 y } = p;` contiene mucha duplicación, Rust tiene una abreviatura para los
 patterns que coinciden con los campos de los structs: solo necesitas listar el
 nombre del campo del struct, y las variables creadas a partir del pattern
-tendrán los mismos nombres. El Listado 18-13 se comporta de la misma manera que
-el código del Listado 18-12, pero las variables creadas en el pattern `let` son
+tendrán los mismos nombres. El Listado 19-13 se comporta de la misma manera que
+el código del Listado 19-12, pero las variables creadas en el pattern `let` son
 `x` e `y` en lugar de `a` y `b`.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="19-13" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Desestructurando los campos de un struct utilizando la forma abreviada de los campos struct">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-13/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-13/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-13: Desestructurando los campos de un struct
-utilizando la forma abreviada de los campos struct</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Este código crea las variables `x` e `y` que coinciden con los campos `x` e `y`
 del struct `p`. El resultado es que las variables `x` e `y` contienen los
@@ -162,18 +159,17 @@ del struct en lugar de crear variables para todos los campos. Hacerlo nos
 permite probar algunos de los campos para valores particulares mientras
 creamos variables para desestructurar los otros campos.
 
-En el Listado 18-14, tenemos una expresión `match` que separa los valores de
+En el Listado 19-14, tenemos una expresión `match` que separa los valores de
 `Point` en tres casos: puntos que se encuentran directamente en el eje `x` (lo
 cual es cierto cuando `y = 0`), en el eje `y` (`x = 0`), o ninguno.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="19-14" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Desestructurar y coincidir valores literales en un solo pattern">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-14/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-14/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-14: Desestructurar y coincidir valores
-literales en un solo pattern</span>
+</Listing>
 
 El primer bloque coincidirá con cualquier punto que se encuentre en el eje `x`
 especificando que el campo `y` debe coincidir con el valor `0`. El pattern aún
@@ -198,18 +194,17 @@ vez que ha encontrado el primer patrón que coincide, por lo que, aunque `Point
 Hemos desestructurado enums en este libro (por ejemplo, el Listado 6-5 en el
 Capítulo 6), pero aún no hemos discutido explícitamente que el pattern para
 desestructurar un enum corresponde a la forma en que se define los datos
-almacenados dentro del enum. Como ejemplo, en el Listado 18-15 usamos el enum
+almacenados dentro del enum. Como ejemplo, en el Listado 19-15 usamos el enum
 `Message` del Listado 6-2 y escribimos un `match` con patterns que desestructuran
 cada valor interno.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="19-15" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Desestructurando variantes enum que contienen diferentes tipos de valores">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-15/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-15/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-15: Desestructurando variantes enum que
-contienen diferentes tipos de valores</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Este código imprimirá `Change the color to red 0, green 160, and blue 255`.
 Prueba cambiar el valor de `msg` para ver el código de las otras opciones.
@@ -232,16 +227,18 @@ el número de elementos en la variante que estamos coincidiendo.
 
 #### Desestructurando Structs y Enums Anidados
 
-So far, our examples have all been matching structs or enums one level deep,
-but matching can work on nested items too! For example, we can refactor the
-code in Listing 18-15 to support RGB and HSV colors in the `ChangeColor`
-message, as shown in Listing 18-16.
+Hasta ahora, nuestros ejemplos han coincidido con structs o enums a un nivel 
+superficial, ¡pero también es posible trabajar con elementos anidados! Por 
+ejemplo, podemos refactorizar el código del Listado 19-15 para admitir colores 
+RGB y HSV en el mensaje `ChangeColor`, como se muestra en el Listado 19-16.
+
+<Listing number="19-16" caption="Coincidencias en enums anidados">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-16/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-16/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-16: Matching on nested enums</span>
+</Listing>
 
 El pattern de la primera opción en la expresión `match` coincide con la
 variante de enum `Message::ChangeColor` que contiene una variante
@@ -259,7 +256,7 @@ complicada donde anidamos structs y tuplas dentro de una tupla y
 desestructuramos todos los valores primitivos:
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
 Este código nos permite descomponer tipos complejos en sus partes componentes
@@ -284,16 +281,15 @@ Hemos utilizado el guion bajo como un pattern comodín que coincide con
 cualquier valor pero no se enlaza con él. Esto es especialmente útil como la
 última opción en una expresión `match`, pero también podemos usarlo en
 cualquier pattern, incluyendo los parámetros de una función, como se muestra en
-el Listado 18-17.
+el Listado 19-17.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="19-17" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Utilizando `_` en la firma de una función">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-17/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-17/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-17: Utilizando `_` en la firma de una
-función</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Este código ignorará completamente el valor `3` pasado como primer argumento,
 e imprimirá `This code only uses the y parameter: 4`.
@@ -312,40 +308,42 @@ utilizaras un nombre en su lugar.
 En este caso, el pattern `_` se utiliza dentro de otro pattern para ignorar
 solo una parte del valor. Esto puede ser útil cuando queremos probar solo una
 parte del valor, pero no tenemos uso para las otras partes en el código
-correspondiente que queremos ejecutar. El Listado 18-18 muestra un código
+correspondiente que queremos ejecutar. El Listado 19-18 muestra un código
 encargado de gestionar el valor de una configuración. Los requisitos
 son que el usuario no debe poder sobrescribir una personalización existente de
 una configuración, pero puede eliminar la configuración y asignarle un valor si
 actualmente no está establecida.
 
+<Listing number="19-18" caption="Utilizando un guion bajo dentro de patterns que coinciden con variantes `Some` cuando no necesitamos usar el valor dentro del `Some`">
+
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-18/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-18/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-18: Utilizando un guion bajo dentro de patterns
-que coinciden con variantes `Some` cuando no necesitamos usar el valor dentro
-del `Some`</span>
+</Listing>
 
-Este código imprimirá `setting is None` y luego `setting is Some(5)`. En la
-primera opción de `match`, no necesitamos hacer coincidir ni usar los valores
-dentro de ninguna de las variantes `Some`, pero si necesitamos comprobar en
-el caso en el que tanto `setting_value` como `new_setting_value` son la
-variante `Some`. En ese caso, imprimimos la razón por la que no cambiamos
-`setting_value`, y no lo cambiamos.
+Este código imprimirá `Can't overwrite an existing customized value` y luego 
+`setting is Some(5)`. En la primera opción de `match`, no necesitamos hacer 
+coincidir ni usar los valores dentro de ninguna de las variantes `Some`, pero si 
+necesitamos comprobar en el caso en el que tanto `setting_value` como 
+`new_setting_value` son la variante `Some`. En ese caso, imprimimos la razón por 
+la que no cambiamos `setting_value`, y no lo cambiamos.
 
 En todos los demás casos (si `setting_value` o `new_setting_value` son `None`)
 expresados por el pattern `_` en la segunda opción, queremos permitir que
 `new_setting_value` se convierta en `setting_value`.
 
 También podemos usar guiones bajos en múltiples lugares dentro de un solo
-pattern para ignorar valores particulares. El Listado 18-19 muestra un ejemplo
+pattern para ignorar valores particulares. El Listado 19-19 muestra un ejemplo
 de ignorar el segundo y cuarto valores en una tupla de cinco elementos.
 
+<Listing number="19-19" caption="Ignorando múltiples partes de una tupla">
+
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-19/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-19/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-19: Ignorando múltiples partes de una tupla</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Este código imprimirá `Some numbers: 2, 8, 32`, y los valores 4 y 16 serán
 ignorados.
@@ -358,17 +356,16 @@ Sin embargo, a veces es útil poder crear una variable que aún no se utilizará
 como cuando estás prototipando o simplemente comenzando un proyecto. En esta
 situación, puedes decirle a Rust que no te advierta sobre la variable no
 utilizada comenzando el nombre de la variable con un guion bajo. En el Listado
-18-20, creamos dos variables no utilizadas, pero cuando compilamos este código,
+19-20, creamos dos variables no utilizadas, pero cuando compilamos este código,
 solo deberíamos obtener una advertencia sobre una de ellas.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="19-20" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Comenzar el nombre de una variable con un guion bajo para evitar recibir advertencias de variables no utilizadas">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-20/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-20/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-20: Comenzar el nombre de una variable con un
-guion bajo para evitar recibir advertencias de variables no utilizadas</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Aquí recibimos una advertencia sobre no utilizar la variable `y`, pero no
 recibimos una advertencia sobre no utilizar `_x`.
@@ -376,47 +373,50 @@ recibimos una advertencia sobre no utilizar `_x`.
 Es importante destacar que hay una diferencia sutil entre usar solo `_` y usar
 un nombre que comienza con un guion bajo. La sintaxis `_x` todavía enlaza el
 valor a la variable, mientras que `_` no enlaza en absoluto. Para mostrar un
-caso en el que esta distinción importa, el Listado 18-21 nos proporcionará un
+caso en el que esta distinción importa, el Listado 19-21 nos proporcionará un
 error.
 
+<Listing number="19-21" caption="Una variable no utilizada que comienza con un guion bajo aún vincula el valor, lo que puede tomar ownership del valor">
+
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-21/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-21/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-21: Una variable no utilizada que comienza con
-un guion bajo aún vincula el valor, lo que puede tomar ownership del
-valor</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Recibiremos un error porque el valor de `s` se mueve a `_s`, lo que invalida
 usar `s` nuevamente. Sin embargo, usar solo el guion bajo no vincula el valor
 en ningún momento. El Listado 18-22 se compilará sin errores porque `s` no se
 mueve a `_`.
 
+<Listing number="19-22" caption="Usar un guion bajo no vincula el valor">
+
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-22/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-22/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-22: Usar un guion bajo no vincula el
-valor</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Este código funciona bien porque nunca vinculamos `s` a nada; no se mueve.
 
-#### Ignorando las partes restantes de un valor con `..`
+#### Ignoring Remaining Parts of a Value with `..`
 
 Con los valores que tiene muchas partes, podemos usar la sintaxis `..` para
 usar partes específicas e ignorar el resto, evitando la necesidad de enumerar
 guiones bajos para cada valor ignorado. El pattern `..` ignora cualquier parte
 de un valor que no hayamos coincidido explícitamente en el resto del pattern.
-En el Listado 18-23, tenemos un struct `Point` que contiene una coordenada en
+En el Listado 19-23, tenemos un struct `Point` que contiene una coordenada en
 el espacio tridimensional. En la expresión `match`, queremos operar solo en la
 coordenada `x` e ignorar los valores en los campos `y` y `z`.
 
+<Listing number="19-23" caption="Ignorando todos los campos de un `Point`
+excepto `x` mediante el uso de `..`">
+
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-23/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-23/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-23: Ignorando todos los campos de un `Point`
-excepto `x` mediante el uso de `..`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Listamos el valor `x` y luego simplemente incluimos el pattern `..`. Esto es
 más rápido que tener que listar `y: _` y `z: _`, particularmente cuando
@@ -424,38 +424,36 @@ estamos trabajando con structs que tienen muchos campos en situaciones en las
 que solo uno o dos campos son relevantes.
 
 La sintaxis `..` se expandirá a tantos valores como sea necesario. El Listado
-18-24 muestra cómo usar `..` con una tupla.
+19-24 muestra cómo usar `..` con una tupla.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="19-24" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Coincidir solo con el primer y último valor en una tupla e ignorar todos los demás valores">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-24/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-24/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-24: Coincidir solo con el primer y último
-valor en una tupla e ignorar todos los demás valores</span>
+</Listing>
 
 En este código, el primer y último valor se coinciden con `first` y `last`. El
 `..` coincidirá con cualquier número de valores entre el primero y el último.
 
 Sin embargo, el uso de `..` debe ser inequívoco. Si no está claro qué valores
 deben coincidir y cuáles deben ignorarse, Rust nos dará un error. El Listado
-18-25 muestra un ejemplo de usar `..` de manera ambigua, por lo que no se
+19-25 muestra un ejemplo de usar `..` de manera ambigua, por lo que no se
 compilará.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="19-25" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Un intento de usar `..` de manera ambigua">
 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-25: Un intento de usar `..` de manera
-ambigua</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Cuando compilamos este ejemplo, obtenemos este error:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 Es imposible para Rust determinar cuántos valores en la tupla ignorar antes de
@@ -474,17 +472,18 @@ pattern en una opción `match`, que también debe coincidir para que se elija
 esa opción. Los match guards son útiles para expresar ideas más complejas que
 las que permite un pattern solo.
 
-La condición puede utilizar variables creadas en el pattern. El Listado 18-26
+La condición puede utilizar variables creadas en el pattern. El Listado 19-26
 muestra un `match` donde la primera opción tiene el pattern `Some(x)` y también
 tiene un match guard de `if x % 2 == 0` (que será verdadero si el número es
 par).
 
+<Listing number="19-26" caption="Agregando un match guard a un pattern">
+
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-26/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-26/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-26: Agregando un match guard a un
-pattern</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Este ejemplo imprimirá `The number 4 is even`. Cuando `num` se compara con el
 pattern en la primera opción, coincide, porque `Some(4)` coincide con `Some(x)`.
@@ -502,21 +501,20 @@ desventaja de esta expresividad adicional es que el compilador no intenta
 verificar la exhaustividad cuando están involucradas las expresiones de match
 guard.
 
-En el Listado 18-11, mencionamos que podríamos usar match guards para resolver
+En el Listado 19-11, mencionamos que podríamos usar match guards para resolver
 nuestro problema de shadowing de pattern. Recordemos que creamos una nueva
 variable dentro del pattern en la expresión `match` en lugar de usar la
 variable fuera del `match`. Esa nueva variable significaba que no podíamos
-probar contra el valor de la variable externa. El Listado 18-27 muestra cómo
+probar contra el valor de la variable externa. El Listado 19-27 muestra cómo
 podemos usar un match guard para solucionar este problema.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="19-27" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Utilizando un match guard para probar la igualdad con una variable externa">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-27/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-27/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-27: Utilizando un match guard para probar
-la igualdad con una variable externa</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Este código imprimirá `Default case, x = Some(5)`. El pattern en la segunda
 opción no introduce una nueva variable `y` que sombree la variable externa `y`,
@@ -532,17 +530,18 @@ podemos buscar un valor que tenga el mismo valor que el `y` externo comparando
 
 También puedes usar el operador _or_ `|` en un match guard para especificar
 múltiples patterns; la condición del match guard se aplicará a todos los
-patterns. El Listado 18-28 muestra la precedencia al combinar un pattern que
+patterns. El Listado 19-28 muestra la precedencia al combinar un pattern que
 usa `|` con un match guard. La parte importante de este ejemplo es que el
 match guard `if y` se aplica a `4`, `5` y _6_, aunque podría parecer que `if y`
 solo se aplica a `6`.
 
+<Listing number="19-28" caption="Combinando múltiples patterns con un match guard">
+
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-28/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-28/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-28: Combinando múltiples patterns con un match
-guard</span>
+</Listing>
 
 La condición de match establece que la opción solo coincide si el valor de `x`
 es igual a `4`, `5` o `6` _y_ si `y` es `true`. Cuando se ejecuta este código,
@@ -572,18 +571,19 @@ habría impreso `yes`.
 
 El operador `@`, conocido como _at_, nos permite crear una variable que almacena
 un valor al mismo tiempo que lo comprobamos para una coincidencia de pattern.
-En el Listado 18-29, queremos probar que el campo `id` de un `Message::Hello`
+En el Listado 19-29, queremos probar que el campo `id` de un `Message::Hello`
 está dentro del rango `3..=7`. También queremos vincular el valor a la variable
 `id_variable` para poder usarlo en el código asociado con la opción. Podríamos
 nombrar esta variable `id`, igual que el campo, pero para este ejemplo usaremos
 un nombre diferente.
 
+<Listing number="19-29" caption="Usando `@` para enlazar un valor en un pattern mientras también lo testeamos">
+
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-29/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-29/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 18-29: Usando `@` para enlazar un valor en un
-pattern mientras también lo testeamos</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Este ejemplo imprimirá `Found an id in range: 5`. Al especificar `id_variable 
 @` antes del rango `3..=7`, estamos capturando cualquier valor que coincida con
diff --git a/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md b/src/ch20-00-advanced-features.md
similarity index 96%
rename from src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md
rename to src/ch20-00-advanced-features.md
index af01cad87..fc50cf8c8 100644
--- a/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md
+++ b/src/ch20-00-advanced-features.md
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
-# Características Avanzadas
+# Advanced Features
 
 Por ahora, has aprendido las partes más comúnmente usadas del lenguaje de
-programación Rust. Antes de hacer otro proyecto en el Capítulo 20, veremos
+programación Rust. Antes de hacer otro proyecto en el Capítulo 21, veremos
 algunos aspectos del lenguaje que podrías encontrar de vez en cuando, pero
 que no usarás todos los días. Puede usar este capítulo como referencia para
 cuando encuentre algo desconocido. Las características cubiertas aquí son
diff --git a/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md b/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md
deleted file mode 100644
index f1368acb4..000000000
--- a/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,34 +0,0 @@
-# Proyecto final: Construyendo un servidor web multithread
-
-Ha sido un largo viaje, pero hemos llegado al final del libro. En este
-capítulo, construiremos un proyecto más para demostrar algunos de los
-conceptos que cubrimos en los capítulos finales, así como recapitular algunas
-lecciones anteriores.
-
-Para nuestro proyecto final, haremos un servidor web que diga "hola" y se vea
-como la Figura 20-1 en un navegador web.
-
-![hello from rust](img/trpl20-01.png)
-
-<span class="caption">Figure 20-1: Nuestro proyecto final compartido</span>
-
-Aquí está nuestro plan para construir el web server:
-
-1. Aprender un poco sobre TCP y HTTP.
-2. Escuchar conexiones TCP en un socket.
-3. Analizar un pequeño número de peticiones HTTP.
-4. Crear una respuesta HTTP adecuada.
-5. Mejorar el rendimiento de nuestro servidor con un *thread pool*.
-
-Antes de comenzar, debemos mencionar un detalle: el método que usaremos no
-será la mejor manera de construir un servidor web con Rust. Los miembros de la
-comunidad han publicado una serie de *crates* listos para producción
-disponibles en [crates.io](https://crates.io/) que proporcionan servidores web
-y *thread pools* más completos que los que construiremos. Sin embargo, nuestra
-intención en este capítulo es ayudarte a aprender, no tomar el camino fácil.
-Debido a que Rust es un lenguaje de programación de sistemas, podemos elegir el
-nivel de abstracción con el que queremos trabajar y podemos ir a un nivel más
-bajo de lo que es posible o práctico en otros lenguajes. Por lo tanto,
-escribiremos el servidor HTTP básico y el *thread pool* manualmente para que
-puedas aprender las ideas y técnicas generales detrás de los *crates* que
-podrías usar en el futuro.
diff --git a/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md b/src/ch20-01-unsafe-rust.md
similarity index 65%
rename from src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md
rename to src/ch20-01-unsafe-rust.md
index 14d8d0fb2..0fd0f3ff7 100644
--- a/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md
+++ b/src/ch20-01-unsafe-rust.md
@@ -98,56 +98,64 @@ la seguridad garantizada a cambio de un mayor rendimiento o la capacidad de
 interactuar con otro lenguaje o hardware donde las garantías de Rust no se
 aplican.
 
-El Listing 19-1 muestra cómo crear un puntero crudo inmutable y mutable a
+El Listing 20-1 muestra cómo crear un puntero crudo inmutable y mutable a
 partir de referencias.
 
+<Listing number="20-1" caption="reando punteros crudos a partir de referencias">
+
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-01/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-01/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-1: Creando punteros crudos a partir de
-referencias</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Observa que no incluimos la palabra clave `unsafe` en este código. Podemos
 crear punteros crudos en código seguro; simplemente no podemos desreferenciar
 punteros crudos fuera de un bloque `unsafe`, como verás en un momento.
 
-Hemos creado punteros crudos utilizando `as` para convertir una referencia
-inmutable y una mutable en sus tipos de puntero crudo correspondientes. Como
-los creamos directamente a partir de referencias garantizadas como válidas,
-sabemos que estos punteros crudos particulares son válidos, pero no podemos
-hacer esa suposición sobre cualquier puntero crudo.
-
-Para demostrar esto, a continuación crearemos un puntero crudo cuya validez
-no podemos estar tan seguros. El Listado 19-2 muestra cómo crear un puntero
-crudo a una ubicación arbitraria en la memoria. Intentar usar memoria arbitraria
-es indefinido: puede haber datos en esa dirección o no, el compilador puede
-optimizar el código para que no haya acceso a la memoria, o el programa puede
-generar un error con un fallo de segmentación. Por lo general, no hay una buena
-razón para escribir código como este, pero es posible.
+Hemos creado punteros sin procesar utilizando los operadores de referencia sin 
+procesar: `&raw const num` crea un raw pointer (un puntero sin procesar) 
+inmutable `*const i32`, y `&raw mut num` crea un puntero sin procesar mutable 
+`*mut i32`. Debido a que los creamos directamente a partir de una variable 
+local, sabemos que estos punteros sin procesar en particular son válidos, pero 
+no podemos hacer esa suposición sobre cualquier puntero sin procesar.
+
+Para demostrar esto, a continuación crearemos un puntero sin procesar cuya 
+validez no podemos estar tan seguros, utilizando `as` para convertir un valor en 
+lugar de usar los operadores de referencia sin procesar. El Listado 20-2 muestra 
+cómo crear un puntero sin procesar hacia una ubicación arbitraria en la memoria. 
+Intentar usar memoria arbitraria resulta en un comportamiento indefinido: podría 
+haber datos en esa dirección o podría no haberlos, el compilador podría 
+optimizar el código de manera que no haya acceso a la memoria, o el programa 
+podría generar un error con una falla de segmentación. Generalmente, no hay una 
+buena razón para escribir código de este tipo, especialmente en casos donde 
+puedes usar un operador de referencia sin procesar en su lugar, pero es posible 
+hacerlo.
+
+<Listing number="20-2" caption="Creando un puntero sin procesar a una dirección de memoria arbitraria">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-02/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-02/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-2: Creando un puntero crudo a una dirección de
-memoria arbitraria</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Recuerda que podemos crear punteros crudos en código seguro, pero no podemos
-_desreferenciar_ punteros crudos y leer la memoria a la que apuntan fuera de un
-bloque `unsafe`.
+_desreferenciar_ punteros crudos (raw pointers) y leer la memoria a la que 
+apuntan fuera de un bloque `unsafe`.
+
+<Listing number="20-3" caption="Desreferenciando punteros crudos dentro de un bloque `unsafe`">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-03/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-03/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-3: Desreferenciando punteros crudos dentro de
-un bloque `unsafe`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Crear un puntero no causa daño; solo cuando intentamos acceder al valor al que
 apunta que podríamos terminar tratando con un valor no válido.
 
-También ten en cuenta que en los Listados 19-1 y 19-3, creamos `*const i32` y
+También ten en cuenta que en los Listados 20-1 y 20-3, creamos `*const i32` y
 `*mut i32` punteros crudos que apuntaban a la misma ubicación de memoria, donde
 se almacena `num`. Si en su lugar intentáramos crear una referencia inmutable y
 mutable a `num`, el código no se compilaría porque las reglas de ownership de
@@ -181,7 +189,7 @@ Aquí hay un ejemplo de una función insegura llamada `dangerous` que no hace
 nada en su cuerpo:
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
 Debemos llamar a la función `dangerous` dentro de un bloque `unsafe` separado.
@@ -189,7 +197,7 @@ Si intentamos llamar a esta función sin un bloque `unsafe`, obtendremos un
 error:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 Con el bloque `unsafe`, le estamos indicando a Rust que hemos leído la
@@ -208,27 +216,29 @@ una función segura es una abstracción común. Como ejemplo, estudiemos la
 función `split_at_mut` de la biblioteca estándar, que requiere algo de código
 inseguro. Exploraremos cómo podríamos implementarlo. Este método seguro está
 definido en slices mutables: toma un slice y lo divide en dos al dividir
-el slice en el índice dado como argumento. El Listado 19-4 muestra cómo usar
+el slice en el índice dado como argumento. El Listado 20-4 muestra cómo usar
 `split_at_mut`.
 
+<Listing number="20-4" caption="Usando la función segura `split_at_mut`">
+
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-04/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-04/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-4: Usando la función segura
-`split_at_mut`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 No podemos implementar esta función utilizando solo Rust seguro. Un intento
-podría ser algo como el Listado 19-5, que no se compilará. Para simplificar,
+podría ser algo como el Listado 20-5, que no se compilará. Para simplificar,
 implementaremos `split_at_mut` como una función en lugar de un método y solo
 para slices de valores `i32` en lugar de para un tipo genérico `T`.
 
+<Listing number="20-5" caption="Un intento de implementación de `split_at_mut` usando solo Rust seguro">
+
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-5: Un intento de implementación de
-`split_at_mut` usando solo Rust seguro</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Esta función primero obtiene la longitud total del slice. Luego verifica si el
 índice dado como parámetro está dentro del slice al verificar si es menor o
@@ -240,10 +250,10 @@ Luego, devolvemos dos slices mutables en una tupla: uno desde el inicio del
 slice original hasta el índice `mid` y otro desde `mid` hasta el final del
 slice.
 
-Cuando intentamos compilar el código en el Listado 19-5, obtendremos un error:
+Cuando intentamos compilar el código en el Listado 20-5, obtendremos un error:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 El borrow checker de Rust no puede entender que estamos tomando prestado
@@ -253,16 +263,17 @@ fundamentalmente correcto porque los dos slices no se superponen, pero Rust no
 es lo suficientemente inteligente como para saber esto. Cuando sabemos que el
 código está bien, pero Rust no lo sabe, es hora de recurrir al código inseguro.
 
-El Listado 19-6 muestra cómo usar un bloque `unsafe`, un puntero sin procesar
+El Listado 20-6 muestra cómo usar un bloque `unsafe`, un puntero sin procesar
 y algunas llamadas a funciones inseguras para hacer que la implementación de
 `split_at_mut` funcione.
 
+<Listing number="20-6" caption="Usando código inseguro en la implementación de la función `split_at_mut`">
+
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-06/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-06/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-6: Usando código inseguro en la implementación
-de la función `split_at_mut`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Recordemos la sección [“The Slice Type”][el-tipo-slice]<!-- ignore --> del
 Capítulo 4 que los slices son un puntero a algunos datos y la longitud del
@@ -297,16 +308,17 @@ una abstracción segura para el código inseguro con una implementación de la
 función que usa código `unsafe` de manera segura, porque crea solo punteros
 válidos a partir de los datos a los que esta función tiene acceso.
 
-Por el contrario, el uso de `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` en el Listado 19-7
+Por el contrario, el uso de `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` en el Listado 20-7
 probablemente se bloqueará cuando se use el slice. Este código toma una
 ubicación de memoria arbitraria y crea un slice de 10,000 elementos.
 
+<Listing number="20-7" caption="Creando un slice a partir de una ubicación de memory arbitraria">
+
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-07/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-07/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-7: Creando un slice a partir de una ubicación
-de memory arbitraria</span>
+</Listing>
 
 No somos propietarios de la memoria en esta ubicación arbitraria, y no hay
 garantía de que el slice que este código crea contenga valores `i32` válidos.
@@ -321,28 +333,46 @@ creación y el uso de una _Foreign Function Interface (FFI)_. Una FFI es una
 forma para que un lenguaje de programación defina funciones y permita que un
 lenguaje de programación diferente (extranjero) llame a esas funciones.
 
-El Listado 19-8 demuestra cómo configurar una integración con la función `abs`
+El Listado 20-8 demuestra cómo configurar una integración con la función `abs`
 de la biblioteca estándar de C. Las funciones declaradas dentro de bloques
-`extern` siempre son inseguras de llamar desde el código Rust. La razón es que
-otros lenguajes no hacen cumplir las reglas y garantías de Rust, y Rust no
-puede verificarlas, por lo que la responsabilidad recae en el programador para
-garantizar la seguridad.
+`extern` usualmente son inseguras de llamar desde el código Rust, por lo que 
+deben también ser marcadas como `unsafe`. La razón es que otros lenguajes no 
+hacen cumplir las reglas y garantías de Rust, y Rust no puede verificarlas, por 
+lo que la responsabilidad recae en el programador para garantizar la seguridad.
+
+<Listing number="20-8" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Declarando y llamando a una función `extern` definida en otro lenguaje">
+
+```rust
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-08/src/main.rs}}
+```
+
+</Listing>
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+Dentro del bloque `unsafe extern "C"`, enumeramos los nombres y las firmas de 
+las funciones externas de otro lenguaje que queremos llamar. La parte `"C"` 
+define qué *interfaz binaria de aplicación (ABI, por sus siglas en inglés)* usa 
+la función externa: el ABI determina cómo llamar a la función a nivel de 
+ensamblador. El ABI `"C"` es el más común y sigue el ABI del lenguaje de 
+programación C.
+
+Sin embargo, esta función en particular no tiene consideraciones de seguridad de 
+memoria. De hecho, sabemos que cualquier llamada a `abs` será siempre segura 
+para cualquier valor de tipo `i32`, por lo que podemos usar la palabra clave 
+`safe` para indicar que esta función específica es segura de llamar, incluso si 
+está en un bloque `unsafe extern`. Una vez que hacemos este cambio, llamarla ya 
+no requiere un bloque `unsafe`, como se muestra en el Listado 20-9.
+
+<Listing number="20-9" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Marcar explícitamente una función como `safe` dentro de un bloque `unsafe extern` y llamarla de forma segura">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-08/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-09/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-8: Declarando y llamando a una función `extern`
-definida en otro lenguaje</span>
+</Listing>
 
-Dentro del bloque `extern "C"` en el Listado 19-8, enumeramos los nombres y
-las firmas de las funciones externas que queremos llamar. El nombre y la firma
-de la función `abs` se definen en el estándar C y son parte de la biblioteca
-estándar de C. La firma de la función `abs` es `int abs(int)`, lo que significa
-que toma un argumento `int` y devuelve un `int`. La función `abs` devuelve el
-valor absoluto de su argumento.
+¡Marcar una función como `safe` no la hace intrínsecamente segura! En cambio, es 
+como una promesa que le haces a Rust de que *es* segura. Aún así, es tu 
+responsabilidad asegurarte de que esa promesa se cumpla.
 
 > #### Llamando a funciones Rust desde otros lenguajes
 >
@@ -350,21 +380,24 @@ valor absoluto de su argumento.
 > lenguajes llamen funciones Rust. En lugar de crear un bloque `extern`, podemos
 > agregar la palabra clave `extern` y especificar la ABI a usar justo antes de
 > la palabra clave `fn` para la función relevante. También necesitamos agregar
-> una anotación `#[no_mangle]` para decirle al compilador de Rust que no
+> una anotación `#[unsafe(no_mangle)]` para decirle al compilador de Rust que no
 > cambie el nombre de esta función. _Mangling_ es cuando un compilador cambia
 > el nombre que le hemos dado a una función a un nombre diferente que contiene
 > más información para otras partes del proceso de compilación para consumir,
-> , pero es menos legible para los humanos. Cada compilador de lenguaje de
+> pero es menos legible para los humanos. Cada compilador de lenguaje de
 > programación mangla los nombres de manera ligeramente diferente, por lo que
 > para que una función Rust sea nombrable por otros lenguajes, debemos
-> deshabilitar el mangling del compilador de Rust.
+> deshabilitar el mangling del compilador de Rust. Esto es **inseguro** porque 
+> podrían ocurrir colisiones de nombres entre bibliotecas al no usar el mangling 
+> integrado. Por lo tanto, es nuestra responsabilidad asegurarnos de que el 
+> nombre que hemos exportado sea seguro para exportar sin mangling.
 >
 > En el siguiente ejemplo, hacemos que la función `call_from_c` sea accesible
 > desde el código C, después de que se compile a una biblioteca compartida y
 > se vincule desde C:
 >
 > ```rust
-> #[no_mangle]
+> #[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 > pub extern "C" fn call_from_c() {
 >     println!("Just called a Rust function from C!");
 > }
@@ -380,17 +413,16 @@ dos hilos acceden a la misma variable global mutable, puede causar una
 condición de carrera.
 
 En Rust, las variables globales son llamadas variables _static_. El Listado
-19-9 muestra un ejemplo de declaración y uso de una variable static con un
+20-10 muestra un ejemplo de declaración y uso de una variable static con un
 string slice como valor.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="20-10" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Definición y uso de una variable static inmutable">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-09/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-10/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-9: Definición y uso de una variable static
-inmutable</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Las static variables son similares a las constantes, que discutimos en la
 sección ["Diferencias entre variables y
@@ -406,23 +438,32 @@ valores en una variable static tienen una dirección fija en la memoria. Usar el
 valor siempre accederá a los mismos datos. Las constantes, por otro lado,
 pueden duplicar sus datos cada vez que se usan. Otra diferencia es que las
 variables static pueden ser mutables. Acceder y modificar variables static
-mutables es _inseguro_. El Listado 19-10 muestra cómo declarar, acceder y
+mutables es _inseguro_. El Listado 20-11 muestra cómo declarar, acceder y
 modificar una variable static mutable llamada `COUNTER`.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="20-11" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Leer o escribir en una variable static mutable es inseguro">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-10/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-10: Leer o escribir en una variable static
-mutable es inseguro</span>
+</Listing>
+
+Al igual que con las variables regulares, especificamos la mutabilidad usando la 
+palabra clave `mut`. Cualquier código que lea o escriba en `COUNTER` debe estar 
+dentro de un bloque `unsafe`. Este código compila y muestra `COUNTER: 3`, como 
+cabría esperar, porque es de un solo hilo. Sin embargo, si múltiples hilos 
+accedieran a `COUNTER`, probablemente resultaría en *data races*, lo cual se 
+considera comportamiento indefinido. Por lo tanto, debemos marcar toda la 
+función como `unsafe` y documentar las limitaciones de seguridad, para que 
+cualquiera que llame a la función sepa qué puede y qué no puede hacer de forma 
+segura.
 
-Como con las variables regulares, especificamos la mutabilidad usando la
-palabra clave `mut`. Cualquier código que lea o escriba desde `COUNTER` debe
-estar dentro de un bloque `unsafe`. Este código se compila e imprime `COUNTER:
-3` como esperaríamos porque es de un solo hilo. Tener múltiples hilos accediendo
-a `COUNTER`, probablemente habría condiciones de carrera.
+Cada vez que escribimos una función insegura, es idiomático agregar un 
+comentario que comience con `SAFETY` y explique qué debe hacer el llamador para 
+usar la función de forma segura. De manera similar, siempre que realicemos una 
+operación insegura, es idiomático escribir un comentario que comience con 
+`SAFETY` para explicar cómo se cumplen las reglas de seguridad.
 
 Con datos mutables que son accesibles globalmente, es difícil asegurarse de que
 no haya carreras de datos, por lo que Rust considera que las variables static
@@ -437,14 +478,15 @@ Podemos usar `unsafe` para implementar un trait inseguro. Un trait se considera
 inseguro cuando al menos uno de sus métodos tiene algún invariante que el
 compilador no puede verificar. Declaramos que un trait es `unsafe` agregando la
 palabra clave `unsafe` antes de `trait` y marcando la implementación del trait
-como `unsafe` también, como se muestra en el Listado 19-11.
+como `unsafe` también, como se muestra en el Listado 20-12.
+
+<Listing number="20-12" caption="Definiendo e implementando un trait inseguro">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-11/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-12/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-11: Definiendo e implementando un trait
-inseguro</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Al utilizar `unsafe impl`, estamos prometiendo que mantendremos las invariantes
 que el compilador no puede verificar.
@@ -470,6 +512,49 @@ a los campos de la union es inseguro porque Rust no puede garantizar el tipo de
 los datos que se almacenan actualmente en la instancia de la union. Puedes
 aprender más sobre las uniones en [la Referencia de Rust][reference].
 
+### Usar Miri para verificar código inseguro
+
+Al escribir código inseguro, es posible que quieras asegurarte de que lo que has 
+escrito sea realmente seguro y correcto. Una de las mejores maneras de hacerlo 
+es usar [Miri][miri], una herramienta oficial de Rust para detectar 
+comportamiento indefinido. Mientras que el *borrow checker* es una herramienta 
+*estática* que funciona en tiempo de compilación, Miri es una herramienta 
+*dinámica* que funciona en tiempo de ejecución. Miri verifica tu código 
+ejecutando tu programa o su suite de pruebas, detectando cuándo violas las 
+reglas que comprende sobre cómo debería funcionar Rust.
+
+Usar Miri requiere una versión nightly de Rust (hablamos más sobre esto en el 
+[Apéndice G: Cómo se desarrolla Rust y “Rust Nightly”][nightly]). Puedes 
+instalar tanto una versión nightly de Rust como la herramienta Miri escribiendo 
+`rustup +nightly component add miri`. Esto no cambia la versión de Rust que usa 
+tu proyecto; solo agrega la herramienta a tu sistema para que puedas usarla 
+cuando lo desees. Puedes ejecutar Miri en un proyecto escribiendo 
+`cargo +nightly miri run` o `cargo +nightly miri test`.
+
+Para ver lo útil que puede ser, considera lo que ocurre cuando lo ejecutamos con 
+el Listado 20-11:
+
+```console
+{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/output.txt}}
+```
+
+Miri detecta de manera útil y correcta que tenemos referencias compartidas a 
+datos mutables y nos advierte al respecto. En este caso, no nos dice cómo 
+solucionar el problema, pero nos permite saber que existe un posible 
+inconveniente, lo que nos da la oportunidad de pensar cómo garantizar su 
+seguridad. En otros casos, Miri puede incluso decirnos que cierto código está 
+*seguramente* mal y hacer recomendaciones sobre cómo corregirlo.
+
+Sin embargo, Miri no detecta *todo* lo que podrías hacer mal al escribir código 
+inseguro. Por un lado, como es una verificación dinámica, solo detecta problemas 
+en el código que realmente se ejecuta. Esto significa que necesitarás usarlo en 
+conjunto con buenas técnicas de prueba para aumentar tu confianza en el código 
+inseguro que hayas escrito. Por otro lado, no cubre todas las posibles formas 
+en que tu código puede ser inseguro. Si Miri *detecta* un problema, sabes que 
+hay un error, pero que Miri *no detecte* un error no significa que no exista. 
+Aun así, Miri puede detectar muchas cosas. ¡Intenta ejecutarlo en los otros 
+ejemplos de código inseguro de este capítulo y observa qué te dice!
+
 ### Cuándo usar código inseguro
 
 Utilizar `unsafe` para llevar a cabo una de las cinco acciones (superpoderes)
@@ -478,9 +563,13 @@ difícil obtener código `unsafe` correcto porque el compilador no puede ayudar
 mantener la seguridad de la memoria. Cuando tengas una razón para usar código
 `unsafe`, puedes hacerlo, y tener la anotación `unsafe` explícita hace que sea
 más fácil rastrear la fuente de los problemas cuando ocurren.
+Cada vez que escribas código inseguro, puedes usar Miri para ayudarte a tener 
+más confianza en que el código que has escrito respeta las reglas de Rust.
 
 [referencias-colgantes]: ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.html#referencias-colgantes
 [differences-between-variables-and-constants]: ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.html#constantes
 [concurrencia-extensible-con-los-traits-sync-y-send]: ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.html#concurrencia-extensible-con-los-traits-sync-y-send
 [el-tipo-slice]: ch04-03-slices.html#el-tipo-slice
 [reference]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/items/unions.html
+[miri]: https://github.com/rust-lang/miri
+[nightly]: appendix-07-nightly-rust.html
diff --git a/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md b/src/ch20-03-advanced-traits.md
similarity index 80%
rename from src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md
rename to src/ch20-03-advanced-traits.md
index 57b618789..30d7d2fc4 100644
--- a/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md
+++ b/src/ch20-03-advanced-traits.md
@@ -24,14 +24,15 @@ Un ejemplo de un trait con un tipo asociado es el trait `Iterator` que la
 biblioteca estándar proporciona. El tipo asociado se llama `Item` y representa
 el tipo de los valores que el tipo que implementa el trait `Iterator` está
 iterando. La definición del trait `Iterator` es como se muestra en el Listado
-19-12.
+20-13.
+
+<Listing number="20-13" caption="La definición del trait `Iterator` que tiene un tipo asociado `Item`">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-12/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-13/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-12: La definición del trait `Iterator` que
-tiene un tipo asociado `Item`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 El tipo `Item` es un marcador de tipo, y la definición del método `next` muestra
 que devolverá valores del tipo `Option<Self::Item>`. Los implementadores del
@@ -44,24 +45,27 @@ manejar. Para examinar la diferencia entre los dos conceptos, veremos una
 implementación del trait `Iterator` en un tipo llamado `Counter` que especifica
 que el tipo `Item` es `u32`:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs">
 
 ```rust,ignore
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/src/lib.rs:ch19}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/src/lib.rs:ch19}}
 ```
 
+</Listing>
+
 Esta sintaxis parece comparable a la de los generics. Entonces, ¿por qué no
 definir simplemente el trait `Iterator` con generics, como se muestra en el
-Listado 19-13?
+Listado 20-14?
+
+<Listing number="20-14" number="Una definición hipotética del trait `Iterator` usando generics">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-13/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-14/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-13: Una definición hipotética del trait
-`Iterator` usando generics</span>
+</Listing>
 
-La diferencia es que cuando usamos generics, como en el Listado 19-13, debemos
+La diferencia es que cuando usamos generics, como en el Listado 20-14, debemos
 anotar los tipos en cada implementación; porque también podemos implementar
 `Iterator<String> for Counter` o cualquier otro tipo, podríamos tener
 múltiples implementaciones de `Iterator` para `Counter`. En otras palabras,
@@ -72,7 +76,7 @@ proporcionar anotaciones de tipo para indicar qué implementación de `Iterator`
 queremos usar.
 
 Con los tipos asociados, no necesitamos anotar los tipos porque no podemos
-implementar un trait en un tipo múltiples veces. En el Listado 19-12 con la
+implementar un trait en un tipo múltiples veces. En el Listado 20-13 con la
 definición que usa tipos asociados, solo podemos elegir cuál será el tipo de
 `Item` una vez, porque solo puede haber un `impl Iterator for Counter`. No
 tenemos que especificar que queremos un iterador de valores `u32` en todas
@@ -99,18 +103,17 @@ operador (como `+`) en situaciones particulares.
 Rust no te permite crear tus propios operadores o sobrecargar operadores
 arbitrarios. Pero puedes sobrecargar las operaciones y los traits
 correspondientes enumerados en `std::ops` implementando los traits asociados
-con el operador. Por ejemplo, en el Listado 19-14 sobrecargamos el operador `+`
+con el operador. Por ejemplo, en el Listado 20-15 sobrecargamos el operador `+`
 para agregar dos instancias de `Point` juntas. Hacemos esto implementando el
 trait `Add` en un struct `Point`:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="20-15" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Implementando el trait `Add` para sobrecargar el operador `+` para instancias `Point`">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-14/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-15/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-14: Implementando el trait `Add` para
-sobrecargar el operador `+` para instancias `Point`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 El método `add` suma los valores `x` de dos instancias `Point` y los valores `y`
 de dos instancias `Point` para crear una nueva instancia `Point`. El trait `Add`
@@ -148,16 +151,15 @@ sección [“Usando el Patrón Newtype para Implementar Traits Externos en Tipos
 Externos”][newtype]. Queremos agregar valores en milímetros a valores en metros
 y que la implementación de `Add` haga la conversión correctamente. Podemos
 implementar `Add` para `Millimeters` con `Meters` como `Rhs`, como se muestra en
-el Listado 19-15.
+el Listado 20-16.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="20-16" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Implementando el trait `Add` en `Millimeters` para sumar `Millimeters` a `Meters">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-15/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-16/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-15: Implementando el trait `Add` en
-`Millimeters` para sumar `Millimeters` a `Meters`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Para agregar `Millimeters` y `Meters`, especificamos `impl Add<Meters>` para
 establecer el valor del parámetro de tipo `Rhs` en lugar de usar el
@@ -190,59 +192,56 @@ tipo. También es posible implementar un método directamente en el tipo con el
 mismo nombre que los métodos de los traits.
 
 Cuando llamas a métodos con el mismo nombre, necesitarás decirle a Rust cuál
-quieres usar. Considera el código en el Listado 19-16 donde hemos definido dos
+quieres usar. Considera el código en el Listado 20-17 donde hemos definido dos
 traits, `Pilot` y `Wizard`, que ambos tienen un método llamado `fly`. Luego
 implementamos ambos traits en un tipo `Human` que ya tiene un método llamado
 `fly` implementado en él. Cada método `fly` hace algo diferente.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="20-17" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Se definen dos traits para tener un método `fly` y se implementan en el tipo `Human`, además se implementa directamente un método `fly` en `Human`">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-16/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-17/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-16: Se definen dos traits para tener un
-método `fly` y se implementan en el tipo `Human`, además se implementa
-directamente un método `fly` en `Human`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Cuando llamamos al método `fly` en una instancia de `Human`, el compilador
 por defecto llama al método que está implementado directamente en el tipo, como
 se muestra en el Listado 19-17.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="20-18" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Llamando al método `fly` en una instancia de `Human`">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-17/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-18/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-17: Llamando al método `fly` en una instancia
-de `Human`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Ejecutando este código imprimirá `*waving arms furiously*`, mostrando que Rust
 llamó al método `fly` implementado directamente en `Human`.
 
 Para llamar a los métodos `fly` de los traits `Pilot` o `Wizard`, necesitamos
 usar una sintaxis más explícita para especificar cuál método `fly` queremos
-llamar. El Listado 19-18 demuestra esta sintaxis.
+llamar. El Listado 20-19 demuestra esta sintaxis.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="20-19" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Especificando qué método `fly` del trait queremos llamar">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-18: Especificando qué método `fly` del trait
-queremos llamar</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Especificar el nombre del trait antes del nombre del método aclara a Rust qué
 implementación del método `fly` queremos llamar. También podríamos escribir
-`Human::fly(&person)`; esto es equivalente a `person.fly()`, pero es un poco
-más largo de escribir si no necesitamos desambiguar.
+`Human::fly(&person)`; esto es equivalente a `person.fly()` que usamos en el 
+Listado 20-19, pero es un poco más largo de escribir si no necesitamos 
+desambiguar.
 
 Al ejecutar este código imprime lo siguiente:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 Debido a que el método `fly` toma un parámetro `self`, si tuviéramos dos
@@ -253,21 +252,19 @@ Sin embargo, las funciones asociadas que no son métodos no tienen un parámetro
 `self`. Cuando hay múltiples tipos o traits que definen funciones no métodos
 con el mismo nombre de función, Rust no siempre sabe a qué tipo te refieres a
 menos que uses _sintaxis completamente calificada_. Por ejemplo, en el Listado
-19-19 creamos un trait para un refugio de animales que quiere nombrar a todos
+20-20 creamos un trait para un refugio de animales que quiere nombrar a todos
 los perros bebés _Spot_. Creamos un trait `Animal` con una función no método
 asociada `baby_name`. El trait `Animal` se implementa para la estructura `Dog`,
 en la que también proporcionamos una función no método asociada `baby_name`
 directamente.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="20-20" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Un trait con una función asociada y un tipo con una función asociada del mismo nombre que también implementa el trait">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-19/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-20/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-19: Un trait con una función asociada y un
-tipo con una función asociada del mismo nombre que también implementa el
-trait</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Implementamos el código para nombrar a todos los cachorros Spot en la función
 asociada `baby_name` que se define en `Dog`. El tipo `Dog` también implementa
@@ -281,23 +278,22 @@ función asociada definida en `Dog` directamente. Este código imprime lo
 siguiente:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-19/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-20/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 El output no es el que queríamos. Queremos llamar a la función `baby_name` que
 forma parte del trait `Animal` que implementamos en `Dog`, por lo que el código
 imprime `A baby dog is called a puppy`. La técnica de especificar el nombre del
-trait que usamos en el Listado 19-18 no ayuda aquí; si cambiamos `main` al
-código del Listado 19-20, obtendremos un error de compilación.
+trait que usamos en el Listado 20-19 no ayuda aquí; si cambiamos `main` al
+código del Listado 20-21, obtendremos un error de compilación.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="20-21" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Al intentar llamar a la función `baby_name` del trait `Animal`, Rust no sabe qué implementación usar">
 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-20/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-21/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-20: Al intentar llamar a la función
-`baby_name` del trait `Animal`, Rust no sabe qué implementación usar</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Debido a que `Animal::baby_name` no tiene un parámetro `self` y podría haber
 otros tipos que implementen el trait `Animal`, Rust no puede averiguar qué
@@ -305,23 +301,21 @@ implementación de `Animal::baby_name` queremos. Obtendremos este error de
 compilación:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-20/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-21/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 Para desambiguar y decirle a Rust que queremos usar la implementación de
 `Animal` para `Dog` en lugar de la implementación de `Animal` para algún otro
-tipo, necesitamos usar la sintaxis completamente calificada. El Listado 19-21
+tipo, necesitamos usar la sintaxis completamente calificada. El Listado 20-22
 demuestra cómo usar la sintaxis completamente calificada.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="20-22" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Usando la sintaxis completamente calificada para especificar que queremos llamar a la función `baby_name` del trait `Animal` implementado en `Dog`">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-21/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-22/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-21: Usando la sintaxis completamente
-calificada para especificar que queremos llamar a la función `baby_name` del
-trait `Animal` implementado en `Dog`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Estamos proporcionando a Rust una anotación de tipo dentro de los corchetes
 angulares, lo que indica que queremos llamar al método `baby_name` del trait
@@ -330,7 +324,7 @@ un `Animal` para esta llamada de función. Este código ahora imprimirá lo que
 queremos:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-21/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-22/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 En general, la sintaxis completamente calificada se define de la siguiente
@@ -377,17 +371,16 @@ Al implementar el método `outline_print`, queremos usar la funcionalidad de
 funcionará con tipos que también implementen `Display` y proporcionen la
 funcionalidad que `OutlinePrint` necesita. Podemos hacer eso en la definición
 del trait especificando `OutlinePrint: Display`. Esta técnica es similar a
-agregar un límite de trait al trait. El Listado 19-22 muestra una
+agregar un límite de trait al trait. El Listado 20-23 muestra una
 implementación del trait `OutlinePrint`.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="20-23" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Implementando el trait `OutlinePrint` que requiere la funcionalidad de `Display`">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-22/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-23/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-22: Implementando el trait `OutlinePrint`
-que requiere la funcionalidad de `Display`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Dado que hemos especificado que `OutlinePrint` requiere el trait `Display`, el
 utilizar la función `to_string` que se implementa automáticamente para cualquier
@@ -399,28 +392,32 @@ trait, obtendríamos un error diciendo que no se encontró ningún método llama
 Veamos qué sucede cuando intentamos usar `OutlinePrint` en un tipo que
 no implementa `Display`, como el struct `Point`:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing file-name="src/main.rs">
 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
+</Listing>
+
 Obtenemos un error que indica que se requiere implementar `Display`, pero no
 está implementado:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 Para solucionar esto, implementamos `Display` en `Point` y cumplimos con la
 restricción que requiere `OutlinePrint`, de la siguiente manera:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing file-name="src/main.rs">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
+</Listing>
+
 Entonces, al implementar el trait `OutlinePrint` en `Point`, se compilará
 exitosamente, y podemos llamar a `outline_print` en una instancia de `Point`
 para mostrarla dentro de un contorno de asteriscos.
@@ -447,16 +444,15 @@ cual nos impide hacerlo directamente debido a regla de los "orphan rules", ya
 que el trait `Display` y el tipo `Vec<T>` están definidos fuera de nuestro
 crate. Podemos hacer un struct llamado `Wrapper` que contenga una instancia de
 `Vec<T>`. Luego podemos implementar `Display` en `Wrapper` y usar el valor de
-`Vec<T>`, como se muestra en el Listado 19-23.
+`Vec<T>`, como se muestra en el Listado 20-24.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="20-24" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Crear un tipo `Wrapper` alrededor de `Vec<String>` para implementar `Display`">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-23/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-24/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-23: Crear un tipo `Wrapper` alrededor de
-`Vec<String>` para implementar `Display`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 La implementación de `Display` usa `self.0` para acceder al `Vec<T>` interno,
 porque `Wrapper` es un struct de tupla y `Vec<T>` es el item en el índice 0 de
@@ -479,7 +475,7 @@ El pattern newtype también es útil incluso cuando no se involucran traits.
 Ahora cambiemos de enfoque y exploremos algunas formas avanzadas de interactuar
 con el sistema de tipos de Rust.
 
-[newtype]: ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#usando-el-pattern-newtype-para-implementar-traits-externos-en-tipos-externos
+[newtype]: ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#usando-el-pattern-newtype-para-implementar-traits-externos-en-tipos-externos
 [implementando-un-trait-en-un-tipo]: ch10-02-traits.html#implementando-un-trait-en-un-tipo
 [traits-definiendo-comportamiento-compartido]: ch10-02-traits.html#traits-definiendo-comportamiento-compartido
 [smart-pointer-deref]: ch15-02-deref.html#tratando-los-smart-pointers-como-referencias-regulares-con-el-trait-deref
diff --git a/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md b/src/ch20-04-advanced-types.md
similarity index 87%
rename from src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md
rename to src/ch20-04-advanced-types.md
index 9e2d3cf24..9984796e0 100644
--- a/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md
+++ b/src/ch20-04-advanced-types.md
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ el tipo `!` y los tipos de tamaño dinámico.
 El newtype pattern también es útil para tareas más allá de las que hemos
 discutido hasta ahora, incluyendo hacer cumplir estáticamente que los valores
 nunca se confundan e indicar las unidades de un valor. Viste un ejemplo de
-usar newtypes para indicar unidades en el Listado 19-15: recuerda que los
+usar newtypes para indicar unidades en el Listado 20-16: recuerda que los
 structs `Millimeters` y `Meters` envolvieron valores `u32` en un newtype. Si
 escribiéramos una función con un parámetro de tipo `Millimeters`, no podríamos
 compilar un programa que accidentalmente intentara llamar a esa función con
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ newtype pattern es una forma ligera de lograr la encapsulación para ocultar
 los detalles de implementación, que discutimos en la sección [“Encapsulación
 que Oculta los Detalles de
 Implementación”][encapsulacion-que-oculta-los-detalles-de-implementacion]<!-- ignore -->
-del Capítulo 17.
+del Capítulo 18.
 
 ### Creando Type Synonyms con Type Aliases
 
@@ -45,16 +45,16 @@ tipo existente otro nombre. Para esto usamos la palabra clave `type`. Por
 ejemplo, podemos crear el alias `Kilometers` a `i32` de la siguiente manera:
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
 Ahora, el alias `Kilometers` es un _sinónimo_ para `i32`; a diferencia de los
-tipos `Millimeters` y `Meters` que creamos en el Listado 19-15, `Kilometers`
+tipos `Millimeters` y `Meters` que creamos en el Listado 20-16, `Kilometers`
 no es un tipo nuevo y separado. Los valores que tienen el tipo `Kilometers`
 se tratarán de la misma manera que los valores del tipo `i32`:
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/src/main.rs:there}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/src/main.rs:there}}
 ```
 
 Debido a que `Kilometers` e `i32` son el mismo tipo, podemos agregar valores
@@ -73,26 +73,28 @@ Box<dyn Fn() + Send + 'static>
 
 Escribir este tipo extenso en firmas de función y como anotaciones de tipo
 en todo el código puede ser tedioso y propenso a errores. Imagina tener un
-proyecto lleno de código como el del Listado 19-24.
+proyecto lleno de código como el del Listado 20-25.
+
+<Listing number="20-25" caption="Usando un tipo largo en muchos lugares">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-24/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-25/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-24: Usando un tipo largo en muchos
-lugares</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Un type alias hace que este código sea más manejable al reducir la repetición.
-En el Listado 19-25, hemos introducido un alias llamado `Thunk` para el tipo
+En el Listado 20-26, hemos introducido un alias llamado `Thunk` para el tipo
 extenso y podemos reemplazar todos los usos del tipo con el alias más corto
 `Thunk`.
 
+<Listing number="20-26" caption="Introduciendo un type alias `Thunk` para reducir la repetición">
+
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-25/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-26/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-25: Introduciendo un type alias `Thunk` para
-reducir la repetición</span>
+</Listing>
 
 ¡Este código es mucho más fácil de leer y escribir! Elegir un nombre
 significativo para un alias de tipo también puede ayudar a comunicar tu
@@ -108,14 +110,14 @@ de E/S. Muchas de las funciones en `std::io` devolverán `Result<T, E>` donde
 `E` es `std::io::Error`, como estas funciones en el trait `Write`:
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-05-write-trait/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-05-write-trait/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
 Él `Result<..., Error>` se repite mucho. Como tal, `std::io` tiene esta
 declaración de alias de tipo:
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
 Dado que esta declaración está en el módulo `std::io`, podemos usar el alias
@@ -124,7 +126,7 @@ con `E` lleno como `std::io::Error`. Las firmas de las funciones del trait
 `Write` terminan viéndose así:
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/src/lib.rs:there}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/src/lib.rs:there}}
 ```
 
 El type alias ayuda de dos maneras: hace que el código sea más fácil de
@@ -141,7 +143,7 @@ never_ porque se encuentra en el lugar del tipo de retorno cuando una función
 nunca retornará. Aquí hay un ejemplo:
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
 Este código se lee como “la función `bar` devuelve never”. Las funciones que
@@ -150,14 +152,15 @@ del tipo `!` por lo que `bar` nunca puede devolver.
 
 Pero, ¿qué utilidad tiene un tipo del que nunca se pueden crear valores?
 Recuerda el código del Juego de Adivinar el Número mostrado en el Listado
-2-5; hemos reproducido parte de él aquí en el Listado 19-26.
+2-5; hemos reproducido parte de él aquí en el Listado 20-27.
+
+<Listing number="20-27" caption="Un `match` con una opción que termina en `continue`">
 
 ```rust,ignore
 {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-05/src/main.rs:ch19}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-26: Un `match` con una opción que termina en
-`continue`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 En ese momento, omitimos algunos detalles en este código. En el Capítulo 6 en
 la sección [“El operador de control de flujo
@@ -166,13 +169,13 @@ discutimos que las opciones de `match` deben devolver todos el mismo tipo. Por
 lo tanto, por ejemplo, el siguiente código no funciona:
 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
 El tipo de `guess` en este código tendría que ser un entero _y_ un string, y
 Rust requiere que `guess` tenga solo un tipo. Entonces, ¿qué devuelve
 `continue`? ¿Cómo se nos permitió devolver un `u32` de una opción y tener otra
-opción que termina con `continue` en el Listado 19-26?
+opción que termina con `continue` en el Listado 20-27?
 
 Como habrás adivinado, `continue` tiene un valor `!`. Es decir, cuando Rust
 calcula el tipo de `guess`, mira ambas opciones de `match`, el primero con un
@@ -190,10 +193,10 @@ El tipo never también es útil con la macro `panic!`. Recordemos la función
 generar un panic con esta definición:
 
 ```rust,ignore
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-en este código, ocurre lo mismo que en el `match` del Listado 19-26: Rust ve
+En este código, ocurre lo mismo que en el `match` del Listado 20-27: Rust ve
 que `val` tiene el tipo `T` y `panic!` tiene el tipo `!`, por lo que el
 resultado de la expresión `match` es `T`. Este código funciona porque `panic!`
 no produce un valor; termina el programa. En el caso de `None`, no devolveremos
@@ -202,7 +205,7 @@ un valor de `unwrap`, por lo que este código es válido.
 Una expresión final que tiene el tipo `!` es un `loop`:
 
 ```rust,ignore
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
 Aquí, el bucle nunca termina, por lo que `!` es el valor de la expresión. Sin
@@ -226,7 +229,7 @@ podemos tomar un argumento de tipo `str`. Considera el siguiente código, que
 no funciona:
 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
 Rust necesita conocer cuánta memoria asignar para cualquier valor de un tipo
@@ -254,7 +257,7 @@ algún tipo de puntero.
 Podemos combinar `str` con todo tipo de punteros: por ejemplo, `Box<str>` o
 `Rc<str>`. De hecho, ya has visto esto antes, pero con un tipo de tamaño
 dinámico diferente: los traits. Cada trait es un tipo de tamaño dinámico al que
-podemos referirnos usando el nombre del trait. En el Capítulo 17 en la
+podemos referirnos usando el nombre del trait. En el Capítulo 18 en la
 sección [“Usando trait objects que permiten valores de diferentes
 tipos”][usando-trait-objects-que-permiten-valores-de-diferentes-tipos]<!--
 ignore -->, mencionamos que para usar traits como objetos de trait, debemos
@@ -268,13 +271,13 @@ compilación. Además, Rust agrega implícitamente un límite en `Sized` a cada
 función generic. Es decir, una definición de función generic como esta:
 
 ```rust,ignore
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
 en realidad se trata como si hubiéramos escrito esto:
 
 ```rust,ignore
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
 De forma predeterminada, las funciones generic solo funcionarán en tipos que
@@ -282,7 +285,7 @@ tienen un tamaño conocido en tiempo de compilación. Sin embargo, puede usar la
 siguiente sintaxis especial para relajar esta restricción:
 
 ```rust,ignore
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
 Un trait bound en `?Sized` significa “`T` puede o no ser `Sized`” y esta
@@ -296,8 +299,8 @@ detrás de algún tipo de puntero. En este caso, hemos elegido una referencia.
 
 ¡A continuación, hablaremos sobre funciones y closures!
 
-[encapsulacion-que-oculta-los-detalles-de-implementacion]: ch17-01-what-is-oo.html#encapsulacion-que-oculta-los-detalles-de-implementacion
+[encapsulacion-que-oculta-los-detalles-de-implementacion]: ch18-01-what-is-oo.html#encapsulacion-que-oculta-los-detalles-de-implementacion
 [string-slices]: ch04-03-slices.html#string-slices
 [the-match-control-flow-operator]: ch06-02-match.html#the-match-control-flow-operator
-[usando-trait-objects-que-permiten-valores-de-diferentes-tipos]: ch17-02-trait-objects.html#usando-trait-objects-que-permiten-valores-de-diferentes-tipos
-[using-the-newtype-pattern]: ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#usando-el-pattern-newtype-para-implementar-traits-externos-en-tipos-externos
+[usando-trait-objects-que-permiten-valores-de-diferentes-tipos]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html#usando-trait-objects-que-permiten-valores-de-diferentes-tipos
+[using-the-newtype-pattern]: ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#usando-el-pattern-newtype-para-implementar-traits-externos-en-tipos-externos
diff --git a/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md b/src/ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md
similarity index 86%
rename from src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md
rename to src/ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md
index a6bbd13f5..88d92a53e 100644
--- a/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md
+++ b/src/ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ punteros a función te permitirá usar funciones como argumentos para otras
 funciones.
 
 La sintaxis para especificar que un parámetro es un puntero a función es
-similar a la de los closures, como se muestra en el Listado 19-27, donde hemos
+similar a la de los closures, como se muestra en el Listado 20-28, donde hemos
 definido una función `add_one` que suma uno a su parámetro. La función
 `do_twice` toma dos parámetros: un puntero a función a cualquier función que
 tome un parámetro `i32` y devuelva un `i32`, y un valor `i32`. La función
@@ -22,14 +22,13 @@ tome un parámetro `i32` y devuelva un `i32`, y un valor `i32`. La función
 suma los dos resultados de la llamada a la función. La función `main` llama a
 `do_twice` con los argumentos `add_one` y `5`.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="20-28" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Usando el tipo `fn` para aceptar un puntero a function como un argumento">
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-27/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-28/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-27: Usando el tipo `fn` para aceptar un
-puntero a function como un argumento</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Este código imprime `The answer is: 12`. Especificamos que el parámetro `f` en
 `do_twice` es un `fn` que toma un parámetro de tipo `i32` y devuelve un `i32`.
@@ -56,14 +55,14 @@ en la biblioteca estándar. Para usar la función `map` para convertir un vector
 de números en un vector de strings, podríamos usar un closure, como este:
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
 O podríamos nombrar una función como argumento para `map` en lugar del
 closure, como este:
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
 Ten en cuenta que debemos utilizar la sintaxis completamente calificada que
@@ -83,7 +82,7 @@ lo que significa que podemos especificar las funciones inicializadoras como
 argumentos para los métodos que toman closures, como se muestra a continuación:
 
 ```rust
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
 Aquí creamos instancias de `Status::Value` usando cada valor `u32` en el rango
@@ -105,13 +104,13 @@ El siguiente código intenta devolver un closure directamente, pero no
 compilará:
 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
 El error del compilador es el siguiente:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 ¡El error hace referencia nuevamente al trait `Sized`! Rust no sabe cuánto
@@ -119,18 +118,17 @@ espacio necesitará para almacenar el closure. Vimos una solución a este
 problema anteriormente. Podemos usar un trait object:
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
 Este código se compilará correctamente. Para obtener más información sobre los
 trait objects, consulta la sección [“Usando trait objects que permiten valores
 de diferentes
 tipos”][usando-trait-objects-que-permiten-valores-de-diferentes-tipos]
-
-<!-- ignore --> en el Capítulo 17.
+<!-- ignore --> en el Capítulo 19.
 
 ¡Ahora veamos las macros!
 
-[advanced-traits]: ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#traits-avanzados
+[advanced-traits]: ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#traits-avanzados
 [valores-enum]: ch06-01-defining-an-enum.html#valores-enum
-[usando-trait-objects-que-permiten-valores-de-diferentes-tipos]: ch17-02-trait-objects.html#usando-trait-objects-que-permiten-valores-de-diferentes-tipos
+[usando-trait-objects-que-permiten-valores-de-diferentes-tipos]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html#usando-trait-objects-que-permiten-valores-de-diferentes-tipos
diff --git a/src/ch19-06-macros.md b/src/ch20-06-macros.md
similarity index 90%
rename from src/ch19-06-macros.md
rename to src/ch20-06-macros.md
index 6316e6aa8..ac3d527b0 100644
--- a/src/ch19-06-macros.md
+++ b/src/ch20-06-macros.md
@@ -78,17 +78,16 @@ También podemos usar la macro `vec!` para crear un vector de dos enteros o un
 vector de cinco string slices. No podríamos usar una función porque no
 conoceríamos el número o el tipo de valores.
 
-El Listado 19-28 muestra una definición ligeramente simplificada de la macro
+El Listado 20-29 muestra una definición ligeramente simplificada de la macro
 `vec!`.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="20-29" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Una versión simplificada de la definición de la macro `vec!`">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-28/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-29/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-28: Una versión simplificada de la definición
-de la macro `vec!`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 > Nota: La definición real de la macro `vec!` en la biblioteca estándar incluye
 > código para preasignar la cantidad correcta de memoria por adelantado. Ese
@@ -113,9 +112,9 @@ patrón dará como resultado un error. Las macros más complejas tendrán más d
 opción.
 
 La sintaxis válida del pattern en una macro es diferente de la sintaxis de los
-patterns cubiertos en el Capítulo 18 porque los patterns de macro se comparan
+patterns cubiertos en el Capítulo 19 porque los patterns de macro se comparan
 con la estructura del código Rust en lugar de con valores. Recorramos lo que
-significan las piezas del pattern en el Listado 19-28; para obtener la sintaxis
+significan las piezas del pattern en el Listado 20-29; para obtener la sintaxis
 completa del pattern de macro, consulte la [Referencia de Rust][ref].
 
 Primero, usamos un conjunto de paréntesis para englobar todo el patrón. Usamos
@@ -172,11 +171,11 @@ similar.
 
 Al crear macros procedurales, las definiciones deben residir en su propio
 crate con un tipo de crate especial. Esto se debe a razones técnicas complejas
-que esperamos eliminar en el futuro. En el Listado 19-29 se muestra cómo se
+que esperamos eliminar en el futuro. En el Listado 20-30 se muestra cómo se
 define una macro procedural, donde `some_attribute` es un marcador de posición
 para usar un tipo específico de macro.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="20-30" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Un ejemplo de definición de una macro procedural">
 
 ```rust,ignore
 use proc_macro;
@@ -186,8 +185,7 @@ pub fn some_name(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
 }
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-29: Un ejemplo de definición de una macro
-procedural</span>
+</Listing>
 
 La función que define una macro procedural tome un `TokenStream` como entrada y
 devuelve un `TokenStream` como salida. El `TokenStream` tipo es definido por el
@@ -212,17 +210,16 @@ anotar sus tipos con `#[derive(HelloMacro)]` para obtener una implementación
 predeterminada de la función `hello_macro`. La implementación predeterminada
 imprimirá `Hello, Macro! My name is TypeName!`, donde `TypeName` es el nombre
 del tipo en el que se ha definido este trait. En otras palabras, escribiremos
-un crate que permita a otro programador escribir código como el Listado 19-30
+un crate que permita a otro programador escribir código como el Listado 20-31
 usando nuestro crate.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="20-31" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="El código que un usuario de nuestro crate podrá escribir cunado se use nuestra macro procedural">
 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-30/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-31/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-30: El código que un usuario de nuestro crate
-podrá escribir cunado se use nuestra macro procedural</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Este código imprimirá `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` cuando hayamos
 terminado. El primer paso es hacer un nuevo crate de biblioteca, así:
@@ -233,17 +230,19 @@ $ cargo new hello_macro --lib
 
 A continuación, definiremos el trait `HelloMacro` y su función asociada:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
+</Listing>
+
 Tenemos un trait y su función. En este punto, nuestro usuario de crate podría
 implementar el trait para lograr la funcionalidad deseada, así:
 
 ```rust,ignore
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
 Sin embargo, tendrían que escribir el bloque de implementación para cada tipo
@@ -284,25 +283,26 @@ procedural. También necesitaremos funcionalidad de los crates `syn` y `quote`,
 como veremos en un momento, por lo que necesitamos agregarlos como dependencias.
 Agrega lo siguiente al archivo _Cargo.toml_ para `hello_macro_derive`:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml</span>
+<Listing file-name="hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml">
 
 ```toml
-{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml:6:12}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml:6:12}}
 ```
 
-Para comenzar a definir la macro procedural, coloca el código del Listado 19-31
+</Listing>
+
+Para comenzar a definir la macro procedural, coloca el código del Listado 20-32
 en tu archivo _src/lib.rs_ para el crate `hello_macro_derive`. Ten en cuenta que
 este código no se compilará hasta que agreguemos una definición para la función
 `impl_hello_macro`.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="20-32" file-name="hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs" caption="Código que la mayoría de los crates de macros procedurales requerirán para procesar código Rust">
 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-31: Código que la mayoría de los crates de
-macros procedurales requerirán para procesar código Rust</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Observa que hemos dividido el código en la función `hello_macro_derive`, que
 es responsable de analizar el `TokenStream`, y la función `impl_hello_macro`,
@@ -335,9 +335,11 @@ La función `hello_macro_derive` convierte primero el `input` de un
 `TokenStream` a una estructura de datos que podemos interpretar y realizar
 operaciones. Aquí es donde entra en juego `syn`. La función `parse` en `syn`
 toma un `TokenStream` y devuelve un struct `DeriveInput` que representa el
-código Rust analizado. El Listado 19-32 muestra las partes relevantes del
+código Rust analizado. El Listado 20-33 muestra las partes relevantes del
 struct `DeriveInput` que obtenemos al analizar el string `struct Pancakes;`:
 
+<Listing number="20-33" caption="La instancia `DeriveInput` que obtenemos al analizar el código que tiene el atributo de la macro en el Listado 20-31">
+
 ```rust,ignore
 DeriveInput {
     // --snip--
@@ -358,9 +360,7 @@ DeriveInput {
 }
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-32: La instancia `DeriveInput` que obtenemos
-al analizar el código que tiene el atributo de la macro en el
-Listado 19-30</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Los campos de este struct muestran que el código Rust que hemos analizado es un
 struct unitario con el `ident` (identificador, es decir, el nombre) de
@@ -386,24 +386,23 @@ salió mal usando `panic!` o `expect`.
 
 Ahora que tenemos el código para convertir el código de Rust anotado de un
 `TokenStream` a una instancia `DeriveInput`, generemos el código que implementa
-el trait `HelloMacro` en el tipo anotado, como se muestra en el Listado 19-33.
+el trait `HelloMacro` en el tipo anotado, como se muestra en el Listado 20-34.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="20-34" file-name="hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs" caption="Implementando el trait `HelloMacro` usando el código Rust analizado">
 
 ```rust,ignore
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 19-33: Implementando el trait `HelloMacro` usando
-el código Rust analizado</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Obtenemos una instancia del struct `DeriveInput` que contiene el nombre
 (identificador) del tipo anotado usando `ast.ident`. El struct en el Listado
-19-32 muestra que cuando ejecutamos la función `impl_hello_macro` en el código
-del Listado 19-30, el `ident` que obtenemos tendrá el campo `ident` con un
-valor de `"Pancakes"`. Por lo tanto, la variable `name` en el Listado 19-33
+20-33 muestra que cuando ejecutamos la función `impl_hello_macro` en el código
+del Listado 20-31, el `ident` que obtenemos tendrá el campo `ident` con un
+valor de `"Pancakes"`. Por lo tanto, la variable `name` en el Listado 20-34
 contendrá una instancia del struct `Ident` que, cuando se imprima, será la
-cadena `"Pancakes"`, el nombre del struct en el Listado 19-30.
+cadena `"Pancakes"`, el nombre del struct en el Listado 20-31.
 
 La macro `quote!` nos permite construir el código que queremos devolver. El
 compilador espera algo diferente al resultado directo de la ejecución de la
@@ -434,7 +433,7 @@ de string en tiempo de compilación.
 
 En este punto, `cargo build` debería completarse correctamente tanto en
 `hello_macro` como en `hello_macro_derive`. ¡Conectemos estos crates al código
-del Listado 19-30 para ver la macro procedural en acción! Crea un nuevo
+del Listado 20-31 para ver la macro procedural en acción! Crea un nuevo
 proyecto binario en tu directorio _projects_ usando `cargo new pancakes`.
 Necesitamos agregar `hello_macro` y `hello_macro_derive` como dependencias en el
 _Cargo.toml_ de `pancakes`. Si estás publicando tus versiones de `hello_macro`
@@ -443,10 +442,10 @@ regulares; si no, puedes especificarlas como dependencias `path` de la
 siguiente manera:
 
 ```toml
-{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml:7:9}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml:7:9}}
 ```
 
-Coloca el código del Listado 19-30 en _src/main.rs_ y ejecuta `cargo run`:
+Coloca el código del Listado 20-31 en _src/main.rs_ y ejecuta `cargo run`:
 debería imprimir `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` La implementación del
 trait `HelloMacro` de la macro procedural se incluyó sin que el crate `pancakes`
 tuviera que implementarlo; la macro `#[derive(HelloMacro)]` agregó la
diff --git a/src/ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.md b/src/ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.md
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..9a7a8391a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.md
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+# Proyecto final: Construyendo un servidor web multithread
+
+Ha sido un largo viaje, pero hemos llegado al final del libro. En este
+capítulo, construiremos un proyecto más para demostrar algunos de los
+conceptos que cubrimos en los capítulos finales, así como recapitular algunas
+lecciones anteriores.
+
+Para nuestro proyecto final, haremos un servidor web que diga "hola" y se vea
+como la Figura 20-1 en un navegador web.
+
+![hello from rust](img/trpl20-01.png)
+
+<span class="caption">Figure 20-1: Nuestro proyecto final compartido</span>
+
+Aquí está nuestro plan para construir el web server:
+
+1. Aprender un poco sobre TCP y HTTP.
+2. Escuchar conexiones TCP en un socket.
+3. Analizar un pequeño número de peticiones HTTP.
+4. Crear una respuesta HTTP adecuada.
+5. Mejorar el rendimiento de nuestro servidor con un *thread pool*.
+
+Antes de comenzar, debemos mencionar un detalle: 
+
+Antes que nada, el método que usaremos no será la mejor manera de construir un 
+servidor web con Rust. Los miembros de la comunidad han publicado una serie de 
+*crates* listos para producción disponibles en [crates.io](https://crates.io/) 
+que proporcionan servidores web y *thread pools* más completos que los que 
+construiremos. Sin embargo, nuestra intención en este capítulo es ayudarte a 
+aprender, no tomar el camino fácil. Debido a que Rust es un lenguaje de 
+programación de sistemas, podemos elegir el nivel de abstracción con el que 
+queremos trabajar y podemos ir a un nivel más bajo de lo que es posible o 
+práctico en otros lenguajes. 
+
+En segundo lugar, no utilizaremos `async` ni `await` aquí. ¡Construir un 
+*thread pool* ya es un desafío suficientemente grande por sí solo, sin agregar 
+la tarea de crear un runtime asincrónico! Sin embargo, mencionaremos cómo 
+`async` y `await` podrían ser aplicables a algunos de los mismos problemas que 
+veremos en este capítulo. En última instancia, como señalamos en el Capítulo 17, 
+muchos *runtimes* asincrónicos utilizan *thread pools* para gestionar su 
+trabajo.
+
+Por lo tanto, escribiremos el servidor HTTP básico y el *thread pool* 
+manualmente para que puedas aprender las ideas y técnicas generales detrás de 
+los *crates* que podrías usar en el futuro.
diff --git a/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md b/src/ch21-01-single-threaded.md
similarity index 88%
rename from src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md
rename to src/ch21-01-single-threaded.md
index 5c0ed5fb4..0f491b3be 100644
--- a/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md
+++ b/src/ch21-01-single-threaded.md
@@ -33,18 +33,17 @@ $ cargo new hello
 $ cd hello
 ```
 
-Ahora agreguemos el código en el Listado 20-1 en *src/main.rs* para comenzar.
+Ahora agreguemos el código en el Listado 21-1 en *src/main.rs* para comenzar.
 Este código escuchará en la dirección local `127.0.0.1:7878` para flujos TCP
 entrantes. Cuando recibe un flujo entrante, imprimirá `¡Conexión establecida!`.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-1" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Escuchar transmisiones entrantes e imprimir un mensaje cuando recibimos una transmisión">
 
 ```rust,no_run
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-01/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-01/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-1: Escuchar transmisiones entrantes e imprimir
-un mensaje cuando recibimos una transmisión</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Usando `TcpListener`, podemos escuchar conexiones TCP en la dirección
 `127.0.0.1:7878`. En la dirección, la sección antes de los dos puntos es una
@@ -119,7 +118,7 @@ conexiones cerradas volviendo a intentar, porque el problema podría ser
 temporal. ¡El factor importante es que hemos obtenido con éxito un controlador
 para una conexión TCP!
 
-Recuerda detener el programa presionando <span class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>
+Recuerda detener el programa presionando <kbd>ctrl</kbd>-<kbd>c</kbd>
 cuando hayas terminado de ejecutar una versión particular del código. Luego
 reinicia el programa invocando el comando `cargo run` después de haber hecho
 cambios de código para asegurarte de que estás ejecutando el código más nuevo.
@@ -131,16 +130,15 @@ separar las preocupaciones de obtener primero una conexión y luego tomar alguna
 acción con la conexión, iniciaremos una nueva función para procesar conexiones.
 En esta nueva función `handle_connection`, leeremos datos del flujo TCP e
 imprimiremos para que podamos ver los datos que se envían desde el navegador.
-Cambia el código para que se vea como el Listado 20-2.
+Cambia el código para que se vea como el Listado 21-2.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-2" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Leyendo desde el `TcpStream` e imprimiendo los datos">
 
 ```rust,no_run
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-02/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-2: Leyendo desde el `TcpStream` e imprimiendo
-los datos</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Importamos `std::io::prelude` y `std::io::BufReader` para obtener acceso a los
 traits y tipos que nos permiten leer del flujo. En el bucle `for` en la función
@@ -284,16 +282,15 @@ El código de estado 200 es la respuesta de éxito estándar. El texto es una
 respuesta HTTP exitosa. ¡Escribamos esto en el flujo como nuestra respuesta a
 una solicitud exitosa! Desde la función `handle_connection`, elimine el
 `println!` que estaba imprimiendo los datos de la solicitud y reemplácelo con
-el código en el Listado 20-3.
+el código en el Listado 21-3.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-3" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Escribiendo una pequeña respuesta HTTP exitosa en el flujo de datos">
 
 ```rust,no_run
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-03/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-3: Escribiendo una pequeña respuesta HTTP
-exitosa en el flujo de datos</span>
+</Listing>
 
 El primer cambio introduce la variable `response`, que contiene los datos
 del mensaje de éxito. Luego, llamamos a `as_bytes` en nuestra `response` para
@@ -315,30 +312,28 @@ respuesta!
 Vamos a implementar la funcionalidad para devolver algo más que una página en
 blanco. Crea el nuevo archivo *hello.html* en la raíz de tu directorio del
 proyecto, no en el directorio *src*. Puedes introducir cualquier HTML que
-quieras; el Listado 20-4 muestra una posibilidad.
+quieras; el Listado 21-4 muestra una posibilidad.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: hello.html</span>
+<Listing number="21-4" file-name="hello.html" caption="Un ejemplo de archivo HTML para devolver en una respuesta">
 
 ```html
-{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/hello.html}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/hello.html}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-4: Un ejemplo de archivo HTML para devolver en 
-una respuesta</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Esto es un documento HTML5 mínimo con un encabezado y un poco de texto. Para
 devolver esto desde el servidor cuando se recibe una solicitud, modificaremos
 `handle_connection` como se muestra en el Listado 20-5 para leer el archivo
 HTML, agregarlo a la respuesta como un cuerpo y enviarlo.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-5" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Enviando el contenido de *hello.html* como el cuerpo de la respuesta">
 
 ```rust,no_run
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-5: Enviando el contenido de *hello.html* como 
-el cuerpo de la respuesta</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Hemos agregado `fs` a la declaración `use` para traer el módulo del sistema de
 archivos de la biblioteca estándar al scope. El código para leer el contenido
@@ -369,25 +364,24 @@ importar lo que el cliente haya solicitado. Agreguemos funcionalidad para
 verificar que el navegador esté solicitando */* antes de devolver el archivo
 HTML y devolver un error si el navegador solicita cualquier otra cosa. Para
 esto necesitamos modificar `handle_connection`, como se muestra en el Listado
-20-6. Este nuevo código verifica el contenido de la solicitud recibida contra
+21-6. Este nuevo código verifica el contenido de la solicitud recibida contra
 lo que sabemos que se parece una solicitud para */* y agrega bloques `if` y
 `else` para tratar las solicitudes de manera diferente.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-6" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Tratar las solicitudes a */* de manera diferente a las demás solicitudes">
 
 ```rust,no_run
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-6: Tratar las solicitudes a */* de manera 
-diferente a las demás solicitudes</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Solo vamos a analizar la primera línea de la solicitud HTTP, por lo que en 
 lugar de leer toda la solicitud en un vector, estamos llamando a `next` para
 obtener el primer elemento del iterator. El primer `unwrap` se encarga de la
 `Option` y detiene el programa si el iterator no tiene elementos. El segundo
 `unwrap` maneja el `Result` y tiene el mismo efecto que el `unwrap` que estaba
-en el `map` agregado en el Listado 20-2.
+en el `map` agregado en el Listado 21-2.
 
 A continuación, verificamos si la `request_line` es igual a la línea de
 solicitud de una solicitud GET a la ruta */**. Si es así, el bloque `if`
@@ -400,36 +394,34 @@ bloque `else` en un momento para responder a todas las demás solicitudes.
 Ejecuta este código ahora y solicita *127.0.0.1:7878*; deberías ver el HTML
 en *hello.html*. Si haces cualquier otra solicitud, como 
 *127.0.0.1:7878/something-else*, obtendrás un error de conexión como los que
-viste al ejecutar el código en el Listado 20-1 y el Listado 20-2.
+viste al ejecutar el código en el Listado 21-1 y el Listado 21-2.
 
-Ahora agreguemos el código del Listado 20-7 al bloque `else` para devolver
+Ahora agreguemos el código del Listado 21-7 al bloque `else` para devolver
 una respuesta con el código de estado 404, que indica que el contenido de la
 solicitud no se encontró. También devolveremos un poco de HTML para una página
 que se renderizará en el navegador indicando la respuesta al usuario final.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-7" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Respondiendo con el código de estado 404 y una página de error si se solicita algo distinto a */*">
 
 ```rust,no_run
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-7: Respondiendo con el código de estado 404 y
-una página de error si se solicita algo distinto a */*</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Aquí, nuestra respuesta tiene una línea de estado con el código de estado 404
 y la frase de motivo `NOT FOUND`. El cuerpo de la respuesta será el HTML en el
 archivo *404.html*. Necesitarás crear un archivo *404.html* junto a
 *hello.html* para la página de error; nuevamente, siéntete libre de usar
-cualquier HTML que desees o usa el HTML de ejemplo en el Listado 20-8.
+cualquier HTML que desees o usa el HTML de ejemplo en el Listado 21-8.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: 404.html</span>
+<Listing number="21-8" file-name="404.html" caption="Contenido de ejemplo para la página que se enviará como respuesta en cualquier caso de error 404">
 
 ```html
-{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/404.html}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/404.html}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-8: Contenido de ejemplo para la página que
-se enviará como respuesta en cualquier caso de error 404</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Con estos cambios, ejecuta tu servidor nuevamente. Al solicitar *127.0.0.1:7878*
 deberías obtener el contenido de *hello.html*, y cualquier otra solicitud,
@@ -444,29 +436,28 @@ Hagamos que el código sea más conciso extrayendo esas diferencias en líneas
 `if` y `else` separadas que asignarán los valores de la línea de estado y el
 nombre del archivo a variables; luego podemos usar esas variables
 incondicionalmente en el código para leer el archivo y escribir la respuesta.
-El Listado 20-9 muestra el código resultante después de reemplazar los grandes
+El Listado 21-9 muestra el código resultante después de reemplazar los grandes
 bloques `if` y `else`.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-9" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Refactorizando los bloques `if` y `else` para que contengan solo el código que difiere entre los dos casos">
 
 ```rust,no_run
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-9: Refactorizando los bloques `if` y `else`
-para que contengan solo el código que difiere entre los dos casos</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Ahora los bloques `if` y `else` solo devuelven los valores apropiados para la
 línea de estado y el nombre de archivo en una tupla; luego usamos la
 destructuración para asignar estos dos valores a `status_line` y `filename`
-usando un patrón en la declaración `let`, como se discutió en el Capítulo 18.
+usando un patrón en la declaración `let`, como se discutió en el Capítulo 19.
 
 El código previamente duplicado ahora está fuera de los bloques `if` y `else`
 y usa las variables `status_line` y `filename`. Esto hace que sea más fácil
 ver la diferencia entre los dos casos, y significa que solo tenemos un lugar
 para actualizar el código si queremos cambiar la forma en que funciona la
 lectura de archivos y la escritura de respuestas. El comportamiento del código
-en el Listado 20-9 será el mismo que el del Listado 20-7.
+en el Listado 21-9 será el mismo que el del Listado 21-7.
 
 ¡Increíble! Ahora tenemos un servidor web simple en aproximadamente 40 líneas
 de código Rust que responde a una solicitud con una página de contenido y
diff --git a/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md b/src/ch21-02-multithreaded.md
similarity index 84%
rename from src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md
rename to src/ch21-02-multithreaded.md
index 1fb7ca101..6fc1b5b7f 100644
--- a/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md
+++ b/src/ch21-02-multithreaded.md
@@ -14,28 +14,27 @@ esto, pero primero, veremos el problema en acción.
 Para simular una solicitud lenta, podemos hacer que el servidor duerma durante
 un tiempo antes de responder. Veremos cómo una solicitud de procesamiento
 lento puede afectar a otras solicitudes realizadas a nuestra implementación
-actual del servidor. El listado 20-10 implementa el manejo de una solicitud a
+actual del servidor. El listado 21-10 implementa el manejo de una solicitud a
 _/sleep_ con una respuesta lenta simulada que hará que el servidor duerma
 durante 5 segundos antes de responder.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-10" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Simulando una solicitud lenta durmiendo durante 5 segundos">
 
 ```rust,no_run
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-10: Simulando una solicitud lenta durmiendo
-durante 5 segundos</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Hemos cambiado de `if` a `match` ahora que tenemos tres casos. Necesitamos
 hacer coincidir explícitamente con un slice de `request_line` para hacer
 coincidir con los valores literales de string; `match` no hace referencia
 automática y desreferenciación como el método de igualdad.
 
-La primera opción es la misma que el bloque `if` del Listado 20-9. La segunda
+La primera opción es la misma que el bloque `if` del Listado 21-9. La segunda
 opción coincide con una solicitud a _/sleep_. Cuando se recibe esa solicitud, el
 servidor dormirá durante 5 segundos antes de representar la página HTML
-correcta. La tercera opción es la misma que el bloque `else` del Listado 20-9.
+correcta. La tercera opción es la misma que el bloque `else` del Listado 21-9.
 
 Puedes ver cómo nuestro servidor es primitivo: ¡las bibliotecas reales
 manejarían el reconocimiento de múltiples solicitudes de una manera mucho menos
@@ -48,8 +47,8 @@ Pero si ingresas _/sleep_ y luego cargas _/_, verás que _/_ espera hasta que
 `sleep` haya dormido durante sus 5 segundos completos antes de cargarse.
 
 Existen varias técnicas que podríamos usar para evitar que las solicitudes se
-acumulen detrás de una solicitud lenta; la que implementaremos es un _pool de
-hilos_.
+acumulen detrás de una solicitud lenta, inlcuyendo usando async como vimos en el
+Capitulo 17; la que implementaremos es un _pool de hilos_.
 
 ### Mejorando el rendimiento con un pool de hilos
 
@@ -111,17 +110,17 @@ para cada conexión. Como se mencionó anteriormente, este no es nuestro plan
 final debido a los problemas con la posibilidad de generar un número ilimitado
 de hilos, pero es un punto de partida para obtener un servidor web
 multihilo. Luego agregaremos el pool de hilos como una mejora, y contrastar las
-dos soluciones será más fácil. El Listado 20-11 muestra los cambios que debe
+dos soluciones será más fácil. El Listado 21-11 muestra los cambios que debe
 realizar en `main` para crear un nuevo hilo para manejar cada flujo dentro del
 bucle `for`.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-11" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Creando un hilo para cada stream">
 
 ```rust,no_run
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-11: Creando un hilo para cada stream</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Como aprendiste en el Capítulo 16, `thread::spawn` creará un nuevo hilo y luego
 ejecutará el código en el cierre en el nuevo hilo. Si ejecutas este código y
@@ -130,6 +129,11 @@ verás que las solicitudes a _/_ no tienen que esperar a que _/sleep_ termine.
 Sin embargo, como mencionamos, esto eventualmente abrumará el sistema porque
 estarías creando nuevos hilos sin ningún límite.
 
+También recordarás del Capítulo 17 que este es precisamente el tipo de situación 
+donde `async` y `await` realmente brillan. Ten esto en mente mientras 
+construimos el *thread pool* y reflexionamos sobre cómo se verían las cosas de 
+manera diferente o similar usando `async`.
+
 <!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. -->
 
 <a id="creating-a-similar-interface-for-a-finite-number-of-threads"></a>
@@ -138,17 +142,16 @@ estarías creando nuevos hilos sin ningún límite.
 
 Queremos que nuestro pool de hilos funcione de manera similar y familiar, de
 modo que cambiar de hilos a un pool de hilos no requiera grandes cambios en el
-código que usa nuestra API. El Listado 20-12 muestra la interfaz hipotética
+código que usa nuestra API. El Listado 21-12 muestra la interfaz hipotética
 para un struct `ThreadPool` que queremos usar en lugar de `thread::spawn`.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-12" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Nuestra interfaz ideal de `ThreadPool`">
 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-12: Nuestra interfaz ideal de
-`ThreadPool`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Utilizamos `ThreadPool::new` para crear un nuevo pool de hilos con un número
 configurable de hilos, en este caso cuatro. Luego, en el bucle `for`,
@@ -164,12 +167,12 @@ compilador pueda guiarnos en cómo solucionarlo.
 
 #### Construyendo `ThreadPool` usando el desarrollo impulsado por el compilador
 
-Realiza los cambios en el Listado 20-12 a _src/main.rs_, y luego usemos los
+Realiza los cambios en el Listado 21-12 a _src/main.rs_, y luego usemos los
 errores del compilador de `cargo check` para impulsar nuestro desarrollo. Aquí
 está el primer error que obtenemos:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 ¡Eso es genial! Este error nos dice que necesitamos un tipo o módulo
@@ -184,27 +187,31 @@ usando un pool de hilos y no solo para servir solicitudes web.
 Crea un _src/lib.rs_ que contenga lo siguiente, que es la definición más simple
 de un struct `ThreadPool` que podemos tener por ahora:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
+</Listing>
+
 Luego edita el archivo _main.rs_ para traer `ThreadPool` al scope del crate
 desde el crate de la biblioteca agregando el siguiente código en la parte
 superior de _src/main.rs_:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing file-name="src/main.rs">
 
 ```rust,ignore
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
+</Listing>
+
 Este código aún no funcionará, pero verifiquémoslo nuevamente para obtener el
 siguiente error que debemos abordar:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 Este error indica que a continuación debemos crear una función asociada
@@ -213,12 +220,14 @@ parámetro que pueda aceptar `4` como argumento y debe devolver una instancia de
 `ThreadPool`. Implementemos la función `new` más simple que tendrá esas
 características:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
+</Listing>
+
 Elegimos `usize` como el tipo del parámetro `size`, porque sabemos que un número
 negativo de hilos no tiene sentido. También sabemos que usaremos este `4` como
 el número de elementos en una colección de hilos, que es para lo que se usa el
@@ -228,7 +237,7 @@ del Capítulo 3.
 Let’s check the code again:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 Ahora ocurre un error porque no tenemos un método `execute` en `ThreadPool`.
@@ -270,12 +279,14 @@ transferir el closure de un hilo a otro y `'static` porque no sabemos cuánto
 tiempo tomará el hilo para ejecutarse. Creemos un método `execute` en
 `ThreadPool` que tomará un parámetro genérico de tipo `F` con estos bounds:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
+</Listing>
+
 Aún usamos `()` después de `FnOnce` porque este `FnOnce` representa un closure
 que no toma parámetros y devuelve el tipo de unidad `()`. Al igual que las
 definiciones de funciones, el tipo de retorno se puede omitir de la firma, pero
@@ -286,7 +297,7 @@ nada, pero estamos tratando de que nuestro código compile. Verifiquemos
 nuevamente:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 ¡Compila! Pero ten en cuenta que si intentas `cargo run` y haces una solicitud
@@ -302,6 +313,9 @@ capítulo. ¡Nuestra biblioteca aún no está llamando al closure pasado a
 > unitarias para verificar que el código se compile _y_ tenga el comportamiento
 > que queremos.
 
+Considera: ¿qué sería diferente aquí si fuéramos a ejecutar un *future* en lugar 
+de un *closure*?
+
 #### Validando el número de hilos en `new`
 
 No estamos haciendo nada con los parámetros a `new` y `execute`. Implementemos
@@ -312,16 +326,15 @@ sentido. Sin embargo, un pool con cero hilos tampoco tiene sentido, pero cero
 es un `usize` perfectamente válido. Agregaremos código para verificar que
 `size` es mayor que cero antes de devolver una instancia de `ThreadPool` y
 hacer que el programa se bloquee si recibe un cero usando el macro `assert!`,
-como se muestra en el Listado 20-13.
+como se muestra en el Listado 21-13.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-13" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Implementando `ThreadPool::new` para generar un panic si `size` es cero">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-13: Implementando `ThreadPool::new` para
-generar un panic si `size` es cero</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Hemos agregado documentación para nuestro `ThreadPool` con comentarios de
 documentación. Ten en cuenta que seguimos las buenas prácticas de documentación
@@ -361,20 +374,19 @@ closure devuelve. Intentemos usar `JoinHandle` también y veamos qué sucede. En
 nuestro caso, los closures que estamos pasando al pool de hilos manejarán la
 conexión y no devolverán nada, por lo que `T` será el tipo de unidad `()`.
 
-El código en el Listado 20-14 se compilará, pero aún no creará ningún hilo.
+El código en el Listado 21-14 se compilará, pero aún no creará ningún hilo.
 Hemos cambiado la definición de `ThreadPool` para contener un vector de
 instancias de `thread::JoinHandle<()>`, inicializado el vector con una
 capacidad de `size`, configurado un bucle `for` que ejecutará algún código para
 crear los hilos y devuelto una instancia de `ThreadPool` que los contiene.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-14" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Creando un vector para que `ThreadPool` contenga los hilos">
 
 ```rust,ignore,not_desired_behavior
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-14: Creando un vector para que `ThreadPool`
-contenga los hilos</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Hemos llevado `std::thread` al scope en la biblioteca, porque estamos usando
 `thread::JoinHandle` como el tipo de los elementos en el vector en
@@ -392,7 +404,7 @@ Cuando ejecutes `cargo check` nuevamente, debería tener éxito:
 
 #### Un struct `Worker` responsable de enviar código desde el `ThreadPool` a un hilo
 
-Dejamos un comentario en el bucle `for` en el Listado 20-14 con respecto a la
+Dejamos un comentario en el bucle `for` en el Listado 21-14 con respecto a la
 creación de hilos. Aquí, veremos cómo creamos hilos. La biblioteca estándar
 proporciona `thread::spawn` como una forma de crear hilos, y `thread::spawn`
 espera obtener algún código que el hilo debe ejecutar tan pronto como se cree
@@ -431,18 +443,17 @@ Implementaremos el código que envía el closure al hilo después de que tengamo
    el vector.
 
 Si estás listo para un desafío, intenta implementar estos cambios por ti mismo
-antes de ver el código en el Listado 20-15.
+antes de ver el código en el Listado 21-15.
 
-¿Listo? Aquí está el Listado 20-15 con una forma de hacer las modificaciones
+¿Listo? Aquí está el Listado 21-15 con una forma de hacer las modificaciones
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-15" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Modificando `ThreadPool` para contener instancias de `Worker` en lugar de contener hilos directamente">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-15: Modificando `ThreadPool` para contener
-instancias de `Worker` en lugar de contener hilos directamente</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Hemos cambiado el nombre del campo en `ThreadPool` de `threads` a `workers`
 porque ahora contiene instancias de `Worker` en lugar de instancias de
@@ -498,18 +509,17 @@ está el plan:
    cualquier trabajo que reciba.
 
 Empecemos por crear un canal en `ThreadPool::new` y mantener el emisor en la
-instancia `ThreadPool`, como se muestra en el Listado 20-16. El struct `Job`
+instancia `ThreadPool`, como se muestra en el Listado 21-16. El struct `Job`
 no contiene nada por ahora, pero será el tipo de elemento que enviaremos por el
 canal.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-16" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Modificando `ThreadPool` para almacenar el emisor de un canal que transmite instancias `Job`">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-16: Modificando `ThreadPool` para almacenar el
-emisor de un canal que transmite instancias `Job`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 En `ThreadPool::new`, creamos nuestro nuevo canal y hacemos que el pool
 mantenga el emisor. Esto se compilará correctamente.
@@ -517,16 +527,15 @@ mantenga el emisor. Esto se compilará correctamente.
 Intentemos pasar un receptor del canal a cada trabajador mientras el pool de
 hilos crea el canal. Sabemos que queremos usar el receptor en el hilo que los
 trabajadores generan, por lo que haremos referencia al parámetro `receiver` en
-el closure. El código en el Listado 20-17 aún no se compilará.
+el closure. El código en el Listado 21-17 aún no se compilará.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-17" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Pasando el receptor a los trabajadores">
 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-17: Pasando el receptor a los
-trabajadores</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Hemos hecho algunos cambios pequeños y sencillos: pasamos el receptor al
 constructor `Worker::new`, y luego lo usamos dentro del closure.
@@ -534,7 +543,7 @@ constructor `Worker::new`, y luego lo usamos dentro del closure.
 Cuando intentamos compilar este código, obtenemos este error:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 El código está intentando pasar `receiver` a múltiples instancias de `Worker`.
@@ -554,17 +563,16 @@ Recuerda los smart pointers thread-safe discutidos en el Capítulo 16: para
 compartir la propiedad entre varios hilos y permitir que los hilos muten el
 valor, necesitamos usar `Arc<Mutex<T>>`. El tipo `Arc` permitirá que varios
 trabajadores sean propietarios del receptor, y `Mutex` garantizará que solo un
-trabajador obtenga un trabajo del receptor a la vez. El Listado 20-18 muestra
+trabajador obtenga un trabajo del receptor a la vez. El Listado 21-18 muestra
 los cambios que debemos hacer.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-18" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Compartiendo el receptor entre los trabajadores usando `Arc` y `Mutex`">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-18: Compartiendo el receptor entre los
-trabajadores usando `Arc` y `Mutex`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 En `ThreadPool::new`, ponemos el receptor en un `Arc` y un `Mutex`. Para cada
 nuevo trabajador, clonamos el `Arc` para aumentar el recuento de referencias
@@ -579,17 +587,16 @@ También cambiaremos `Job` de un struct a un alias de tipo para un objeto de
 trait que contiene el tipo de cierre que recibe `execute`. Como se discutió en
 la sección [“Creación de sinónimos de tipo con alias de
 tipo”][creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases]<!-- ignore -->
-del Capítulo 19, los alias de tipo nos permiten hacer tipos largos más cortos
-para facilitar su uso. Mira el Listado 20-19.
+del Capítulo 20, los alias de tipo nos permiten hacer tipos largos más cortos
+para facilitar su uso. Mira el Listado 21-19.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-19" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Creando un alias de tipo `Job` para un `Box` que contenga cada closure y luego enviamos el trabajo por el canal">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-19: Creando un alias de tipo `Job` para un
-`Box` que contenga cada closure y luego enviamos el trabajo por el canal</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Después de crear una nueva instancia de `Job` usando el closure que obtenemos
 en `execute`, enviamos ese trabajo por el extremo de envío del canal. Estamos
@@ -605,16 +612,15 @@ sabe eso.
 `thread::spawn` todavía solo _hace referencia_ al extremo receptor del canal.
 En su lugar, necesitamos que el cierre se repita para siempre, preguntando al
 extremo receptor del canal por un trabajo y ejecutando el trabajo cuando lo
-obtiene. Hagamos el cambio que se muestra en el Listado 20-20 a `Worker::new`.
+obtiene. Hagamos el cambio que se muestra en el Listado 21-20 a `Worker::new`.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-20" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Receiving and executing the jobs in the worker’s thread">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-20: Recibiendo y ejecutando los trabajos en el
-hilo del trabajador</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Aquí, primero llamamos a `lock` en el `receiver` para adquirir el mutex, y
 luego llamamos a `unwrap` para que el hilo actual se bloquee en caso de que
@@ -639,7 +645,7 @@ que solo un hilo `Worker` a la vez está tratando de solicitar un trabajo.
 y haz algunas solicitudes:
 
 <!-- manual-regeneration
-cd listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20
+cd listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20
 cargo run
 make some requests to 127.0.0.1:7878
 Can't automate because the output depends on making requests
@@ -648,28 +654,28 @@ Can't automate because the output depends on making requests
 ```console
 $ cargo run
    Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello)
-warning: field is never read: `workers`
+warning: field `workers` is never read
  --> src/lib.rs:7:5
   |
+6 | pub struct ThreadPool {
+  |            ---------- field in this struct
 7 |     workers: Vec<Worker>,
-  |     ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+  |     ^^^^^^^
   |
   = note: `#[warn(dead_code)]` on by default
 
-warning: field is never read: `id`
+warning: fields `id` and `thread` are never read
   --> src/lib.rs:48:5
    |
+47 | struct Worker {
+   |        ------ fields in this struct
 48 |     id: usize,
-   |     ^^^^^^^^^
-
-warning: field is never read: `thread`
-  --> src/lib.rs:49:5
-   |
+   |     ^^
 49 |     thread: thread::JoinHandle<()>,
-   |     ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+   |     ^^^^^^
 
-warning: `hello` (lib) generated 3 warnings
-    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.40s
+warning: `hello` (lib) generated 2 warnings
+    Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 4.91s
      Running `target/debug/hello`
 Worker 0 got a job; executing.
 Worker 2 got a job; executing.
@@ -695,18 +701,23 @@ otro hilo las ejecute.
 > razones de almacenamiento en caché. Esta limitación no es causada por nuestro
 > servidor web.
 
-Después de aprender sobre el bucle `while let` en el Capítulo 18, es posible que
-te preguntes por qué no escribimos el código del hilo del trabajador como se
-muestra en el Listado 20-21.
+Este es un buen momento para pausar y considerar cómo sería diferente el código 
+de los Listados 21-18, 21-19 y 21-20 si usáramos futures en lugar de un closure 
+para el trabajo a realizar. ¿Qué tipos cambiarían? ¿Cómo serían diferentes las 
+firmas de los métodos, si es que cambiarían? ¿Qué partes del código 
+permanecerían iguales?
+
+Después de aprender sobre el bucle `while let` en los Capítulos 17 y 18, es 
+posible que te preguntes por qué no escribimos el código del hilo del trabajador 
+como se muestra en el Listado 21-21.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-21" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Una implementación alternativa de `Worker::new` usando `while let`">
 
 ```rust,ignore,not_desired_behavior
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-21: Una implementación alternativa de
-`Worker::new` usando `while let`</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Este código se compila y se ejecuta, pero no produce el comportamiento de
 sub procesamiento deseado: una solicitud lenta aún hará que otras solicitudes
@@ -719,16 +730,16 @@ a menos que tengamos el bloqueo. Sin embargo, esta implementación también pued
 resultar en que el bloqueo se mantenga más tiempo de lo previsto si no somos
 conscientes de la duración del `MutexGuard<T>`.
 
-El código en el Listado 20-21 que usa `let job =
+El código en el Listado 21-21 que usa `let job =
 receiver.lock().unwrap().recv().unwrap();` funciona porque con `let`, los
 valores temporales utilizados en la expresión del lado derecho del signo igual
 se descartan inmediatamente cuando finaliza la declaración `let`. Sin embargo,
 `while let` (y `if let` y `match`) no descarta los valores temporales hasta el
-final del bloque asociado. En el Listado 20-21, el bloqueo permanece retenido
+final del bloque asociado. En el Listado 21-21, el bloqueo permanece retenido
 durante la duración de la llamada a `job()`, lo que significa que otros
 trabajadores no pueden recibir trabajos.
 
-[creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases]: ch19-04-advanced-types.html#creando-type-synonyms-con-type-aliases
+[creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases]: ch20-04-advanced-types.html#creando-type-synonyms-con-type-aliases
 [integer-types]: ch03-02-data-types.html#tipos-de-enteros
 [fn-traits]: ch13-01-closures.html#moving-captured-values-out-of-the-closure-and-the-fn-traits
 [builder]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/thread/struct.Builder.html
diff --git a/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md b/src/ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md
similarity index 79%
rename from src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md
rename to src/ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md
index 78a1014b4..bcb0260a5 100644
--- a/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md
+++ b/src/ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md
@@ -1,12 +1,12 @@
 ## Apagado y limpieza eficientes
 
-El código del Listing 20-20 está respondiendo requests de forma asíncrona 
+El código del Listing 21-20 está respondiendo requests de forma asíncrona 
 mediante el uso de un pool de threads, como pretendíamos, Recibimos 
 algunas advertencias sobre los campos `workers`, `id` y `thread` que no
 estamos usando de forma directa que nos recuerda que no estamos limpiando
-nada. Cuando usamos el método menos elegante <span class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>
-para detener el thread principal, todos los demás threads se detienen inmediatamente
-también, incluso si están en medio de servir una request.
+nada. Cuando usamos el método menos elegante <kbd>ctrl</kbd>-<kbd>c</kbd>
+para detener el thread principal, todos los demás threads se detienen 
+inmediatamente también, incluso si están en medio de servir una request.
 
 A continuación, implementaremos el trait `Drop` para llamar a `join` en cada uno
 de los threads del pool para que puedan terminar las requests en las que están
@@ -15,21 +15,25 @@ threads que deben dejar de aceptar nuevas requests y cerrarse. Para ver este
 código en acción, modificaremos nuestro servidor para que acepte solo dos
 requests antes de cerrar el pool de threads correctamente.
 
+Algo importante a tener en cuenta mientras avanzamos: nada de esto afecta las 
+partes del código que manejan la ejecución de los closures, por lo que todo 
+aquí sería exactamente igual si estuviéramos usando un thread pool para un 
+runtime asincrónico.
+
 ### Implementando el Trait `Drop` en `ThreadPool`
 
 Comencemos implementando `Drop` en nuestro pool de threads. Cuando el pool se
 destruye, nuestros threads deberían unirse para asegurarse de que terminan su
-trabajo. El Listing 20-22 muestra un primer intento de implementación de `Drop`;
+trabajo. El Listing 21-22 muestra un primer intento de implementación de `Drop`;
 este código aún no funcionará.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-22" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Uniendo cada thread cuando el thread pool se sale del scope">
 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-22: Uniendo cada thread cuando el thread pool
-se sale del scope</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Primero, iteramos a través de cada uno de los `workers` del pool de threads.
 Usamos `&mut` para esto porque `self` es una referencia mutable, y también
@@ -41,7 +45,7 @@ diciendo que este worker en particular se está cerrando, y luego llamamos a
 Aquí está el error que obtenemos cuando compilamos este código:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 El error nos dice que no podemos llamar a `join` porque solo tenemos un
@@ -59,40 +63,46 @@ queramos limpiar un `Worker`, reemplazaremos `Some` con `None` para que el
 Entonces sabemos que queremos actualizar la definición de `Worker` de esta
 manera:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs">
 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
+</Listing>
+
 Ahora usemos el compilador para encontrar los otros lugares que necesitan
 cambiar. Al verificar este código, obtenemos dos errores:
 
 ```console
-{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/output.txt}}
+{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/output.txt}}
 ```
 
 Abordemos el segundo error, que apunta al código al final de `Worker::new`;
 necesitamos envolver el valor `thread` en `Some` cuando creamos un nuevo
 `Worker`. Haga los siguientes cambios para corregir este error:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs">
 
 ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
+</Listing>
+
 El primer error está en nuestra implementación de `Drop`. Mencionamos
 anteriormente que pretendíamos llamar a `take` en el valor `Option` para mover
 `thread` fuera de `worker`. Los siguientes cambios lo harán:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs">
 
 ```rust,ignore,not_desired_behavior
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-Como discutimos en el Capítulo 17, el método `take` en `Option` toma la variante
+</Listing>
+
+Como discutimos en el Capítulo 18, el método `take` en `Option` toma la variante
 `Some` y deja `None` en su lugar. Estamos usando `if let` para deconstruir el
 `Some` y obtener el thread; luego llamamos a `join` en el thread. Si el thread
 de un worker ya es `None`, sabemos que ese worker ya ha tenido su thread
@@ -114,47 +124,44 @@ Para solucionar este problema, necesitamos un cambio en la implementación de
 
 En primer lugar, cambiemos la implementación de `drop` de `ThreadPool` para
 soltar explícitamente el `sender` antes de esperar a que los threads terminen.
-El Listing 20-23 muestra los cambios en `ThreadPool` para soltar explícitamente
+El Listing 21-23 muestra los cambios en `ThreadPool` para soltar explícitamente
 `sender`. Usamos la misma técnica `Option` y `take` que hicimos con el thread
 para poder mover `sender` fuera de `ThreadPool`:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-23" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Libera explicitamente `sender` antes de unirse a los threads del worker">
 
 ```rust,noplayground,not_desired_behavior
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-23: Dejar caer explícitamente `sender` antes de 
-unirse a los threads del worker</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Soltar `sender` cierra el canal, lo que indica que no se enviarán más mensajes.
 Cuando eso sucede, todas las llamadas a `recv` que los workers hacen en el loop
-infinito devolverán un error. En el Listing 20-24, cambiamos el loop de `Worker`
+infinito devolverán un error. En el Listing 21-24, cambiamos el loop de `Worker`
 para salir del loop con gracia en ese caso, lo que significa que los hreads
 terminarán cuando la implementación de `drop` de `ThreadPool` llame a `join`
 en ellos.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-24" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Saliendo explícitamente del loop cuando `recv` devuelve un error">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/src/lib.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/src/lib.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-24: Saliendo explícitamente del loop cuando 
-`recv` devuelve un error</span>
+</Listing>
 
 Para ver este código en acción, modifiquemos `main` para aceptar solo dos
 requests antes de cerrar el servidor con gracia, como se muestra en el
-Listing 20-25.
+Listing 21-25.
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing number="21-25" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Shut down the server after serving two requests by exiting the loop">
 
 ```rust,ignore
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/src/main.rs:here}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/src/main.rs:here}}
 ```
 
-<span class="caption">Listing 20-25: Apagando el servidor después de servir dos 
-requests saliendo del loop</span>
+</Listing>
 
 No querríamos que un servidor web del mundo real se apague después de servir
 solo dos requests. Este código solo demuestra que el apagado y la limpieza
@@ -168,7 +175,7 @@ Iniciamos el servidor con `cargo run` y hacemos tres requests. La tercera
 request debería fallar, y en su terminal debería ver una salida similar a esta:
 
 <!-- manual-regeneration
-cd listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25
+cd listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25
 cargo run
 curl http://127.0.0.1:7878
 curl http://127.0.0.1:7878
@@ -181,7 +188,7 @@ Can't automate because the output depends on making requests
 ```console
 $ cargo run
    Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello)
-    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.0s
+    Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.41s
      Running `target/debug/hello`
 Worker 0 got a job; executing.
 Shutting down.
@@ -220,18 +227,22 @@ un apagado con gracia del servidor, que limpia todos los threads del pool.
 
 Aquí está el código completo como referencia:
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
+<Listing file-name="src/main.rs">
 
 ```rust,ignore
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs}}
 ```
 
-<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
+</Listing>
+
+<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs">
 
 ```rust,noplayground
-{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/lib.rs}}
+{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/lib.rs}}
 ```
 
+</Listing>
+
 ¡Podríamos hacer más! Si quieres seguir mejorando este proyecto, aquí hay algunas
 ideas:
 
diff --git a/src/img/trpl04-05.svg b/src/img/trpl04-05.svg
index f284758a9..da6643a38 100644
--- a/src/img/trpl04-05.svg
+++ b/src/img/trpl04-05.svg
@@ -1,73 +1,93 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="no"?>
+<!DOCTYPE svg PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD SVG 1.1//EN"
+ "http://www.w3.org/Graphics/SVG/1.1/DTD/svg11.dtd">
+<!-- Generated by graphviz version 12.1.2 (20240928.0832)
+ -->
+<!-- Pages: 1 -->
 <svg
- viewBox="0.00 0.00 1500.00 650.00" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
-<g  class="graph" transform="scale(4.1667 4.1667) rotate(0) translate(4 152)">
-<title>Tres tablas: la tabla para s contiene solo un puntero a la tabla para s1. La tabla para s1 contiene los datos de la pila para s1 y apunta a los datos de la cadena en la pila.
-Tres tablas: la tabla para s contiene solo un puntero a la tabla para s1. La tabla para s1 contiene los datos de la pila para s1 y apunta a los datos de la cadena en la pila.
-
-
-
-
-s
-
-nombre
-
-valor
-
-puntero
-
+ viewBox="0.00 0.00 1038.00 1342.00" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
+
+Una tabla `s` que representa el valor del string en el stack, apuntando a la segunda porción de datos del string (`ahoy`) en el heap, con los datos originales del string (`hola`) atenuados porque ya no pueden ser accedidos.
+Una tabla `s` que representa el valor del string en el stack, apuntando a la segunda porción de datos del string (`ahoy`) en el heap, con los datos originales del string (`hola`) atenuados porque ya no pueden ser accedidos.
+
+
+cluster_heap
 
-
-
-
-s1
-
-nombre
-
-valor
-
-puntero
-
-
-longitud
-
-4
-
-capacidad
-
-4
+
+
+s
+
+s
+
+nombre
+
+valor
+
+puntero
+
+
+longitud
+
+4
+
+capacidad
+
+4
 
-
-
-
-
+
+
+ahoy
+
+indice
+
+valor
+
+0
+
+a
+
+1
+
+h
+
+2
+
+o
+
+3
+
+y
 
-
-
-
-indice
-
-valor
-
-0
-
-h
-
-1
-
-o
-
-2
-
-l
-
-3
-
-a
+
+
+s:c->ahoy:pointee
+
+
 
-
-
-
-
+
+
+hello
+
+
+indice
+
+valor
+
+0
+
+h
+
+1
+
+o
+
+2
+
+l
+
+3
+
+a
 
 
 
diff --git a/src/img/trpl04-06.svg b/src/img/trpl04-06.svg
index c22ea6323..bf1e3c69e 100644
--- a/src/img/trpl04-06.svg
+++ b/src/img/trpl04-06.svg
@@ -1,115 +1,73 @@
-
-
-
-
 
-
-%3
-
+ viewBox="0.00 0.00 1500.00 650.00" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
+
+Tres tablas: la tabla para s contiene solo un puntero a la tabla para s1. La tabla para s1 contiene los datos de la pila para s1 y apunta a los datos de la cadena en la pila.
+Tres tablas: la tabla para s contiene solo un puntero a la tabla para s1. La tabla para s1 contiene los datos de la pila para s1 y apunta a los datos de la cadena en la pila.
+
 
 
-table0
-
-world
-
-name
-
-value
-
-ptr
-
-
-len
-
-5
+
+s
+
+nombre
+
+valor
+
+puntero
+
 
-
+
 
-table4
-
-index
-
-value
-
-0
-
-h
-
-1
-
-e
-
-2
-
-l
-
-3
-
-l
-
-4
-
-o
-
-5
-
- 
-
-6
-
-w
-
-7
-
-o
-
-8
-
-r
-
-9
-
-l
-
-10
-
-d
+
+s1
+
+nombre
+
+valor
+
+puntero
+
+
+longitud
+
+4
+
+capacidad
+
+4
 
-
+
 
-table0:c->table4:pointee2
-
-
+
+
 
-
+
 
-table3
-
-s
-
-name
-
-value
-
-ptr
-
-
-len
-
-11
-
-capacity
-
-11
+
+indice
+
+valor
+
+0
+
+h
+
+1
+
+o
+
+2
+
+l
+
+3
+
+a
 
-
+
 
-table3:c->table4:pointee
-
-
+
+
 
 
-
+
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/img/trpl04-07.svg b/src/img/trpl04-07.svg
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..e64415fe4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/img/trpl04-07.svg
@@ -0,0 +1,115 @@
+
+
+
+
+
+
+%3
+
+
+
+table0
+
+world
+
+name
+
+value
+
+ptr
+
+
+len
+
+5
+
+
+
+table4
+
+index
+
+value
+
+0
+
+h
+
+1
+
+e
+
+2
+
+l
+
+3
+
+l
+
+4
+
+o
+
+5
+
+ 
+
+6
+
+w
+
+7
+
+o
+
+8
+
+r
+
+9
+
+l
+
+10
+
+d
+
+
+
+table0:c->table4:pointee2
+
+
+
+
+
+table3
+
+s
+
+name
+
+value
+
+ptr
+
+
+len
+
+11
+
+capacity
+
+11
+
+
+
+table3:c->table4:pointee
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-01.svg b/src/img/trpl17-01.svg
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..483bf7216
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/img/trpl17-01.svg
@@ -0,0 +1,110 @@
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+cluster_task_a
+
+Task A
+
+
+cluster_task_b
+
+Task B
+
+
+
+A1
+
+A1
+
+
+
+A2
+
+A2
+
+
+
+
+B1
+
+B1
+
+
+
+A1->B1
+
+
+
+
+
+A3
+
+A3
+
+
+
+
+B2
+
+B2
+
+
+
+A2->B2
+
+
+
+
+
+A4
+
+A4
+
+
+
+
+A3->A4
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+B3
+
+B3
+
+
+
+A4->B3
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+B1->A2
+
+
+
+
+
+
+B2->A3
+
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-02.svg b/src/img/trpl17-02.svg
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..5c32a1a26
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/img/trpl17-02.svg
@@ -0,0 +1,96 @@
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+cluster_ColleagueB
+
+Task B
+
+
+cluster_ColleagueA
+
+Task A
+
+
+
+B1
+
+B1
+
+
+
+B2
+
+B2
+
+
+
+B1->B2
+
+
+
+
+
+B3
+
+B3
+
+
+
+B2->B3
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+A1
+
+A1
+
+
+
+A2
+
+A2
+
+
+
+A1->A2
+
+
+
+
+
+A3
+
+A3
+
+
+
+A2->A3
+
+
+
+
+
+A4
+
+A4
+
+
+
+A3->A4
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-03.svg b/src/img/trpl17-03.svg
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..ad105a583
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/img/trpl17-03.svg
@@ -0,0 +1,110 @@
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+cluster_ColleagueB
+
+Task A
+
+
+cluster_ColleagueA
+
+Task B
+
+
+
+A1
+
+A1
+
+
+
+A2
+
+A2
+
+
+
+A1->A2
+
+
+
+
+
+
+A2->A0_1:c
+
+
+
+
+
+
+A3
+
+A3
+
+
+
+A0_1->A3
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+B1
+
+B1
+
+
+
+B2
+
+B2
+
+
+
+B1->B2
+
+
+
+
+
+B3
+
+B3
+
+
+
+B2->B3
+
+
+
+
+
+B3->A3
+
+
+
+
+
+B4
+
+B4
+
+
+
+B3->B4
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-04.svg b/src/img/trpl17-04.svg
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..fed6c3604
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/img/trpl17-04.svg
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+fut1
+
+fut1
+
+0
+
+1
+
+  
+
+
+
+fut1:c->fut1:target
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-05.svg b/src/img/trpl17-05.svg
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..e3472baa7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/img/trpl17-05.svg
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+%3
+
+
+
+fut1
+
+
+fut1
+
+?
+
+?
+
+?
+
+
+
+fut2
+
+fut2
+
+0
+
+1
+
+ 
+
+
+
+fut2:c->fut1:c
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-06.svg b/src/img/trpl17-06.svg
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..443bb568d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/img/trpl17-06.svg
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+cluster_box
+
+
+cluster_box_internal
+
+b1
+
+
+cluster_deref
+
+pinned
+
+
+
+pinned_box
+
+Pin
+
+ 
+
+
+
+pin
+
+
+
+
+pinned_box:c->pin
+
+
+
+
+box
+
+fut
+
+0
+
+ 
+
+...
+
+1
+
+
+
+pin->box:target
+
+
+
+
+
+box:c->box:internal
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-07.svg b/src/img/trpl17-07.svg
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..712e3006f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/img/trpl17-07.svg
@@ -0,0 +1,86 @@
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+cluster_not_fut
+
+
+cluster_boxes
+
+
+cluster_box_1
+
+
+cluster_box_2_internal
+
+b1
+
+
+cluster_box_2
+
+
+cluster_box_2_internal
+
+b2
+
+
+cluster_target
+
+pinned
+
+
+
+pin
+
+Pin
+
+ 
+
+
+
+
+
+box2
+
+
+
+
+pin:c->box2
+
+
+
+
+
+fut
+
+fut
+
+0
+
+ 
+
+...
+
+1
+
+
+
+box2->fut:target
+
+
+
+
+
+fut:c->fut:internal
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-08.svg b/src/img/trpl17-08.svg
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..b2275ac19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/img/trpl17-08.svg
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+cluster_deref
+
+String
+
+
+
+pinned_box
+
+Pin
+
+ 
+
+
+
+pin
+
+
+
+
+pinned_box:c->pin
+
+
+
+
+fut
+
+5usize
+
+h
+
+e
+
+l
+
+l
+
+o
+
+
+
+pin->fut:target
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-09.svg b/src/img/trpl17-09.svg
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..997d9b82e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/img/trpl17-09.svg
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+cluster_both
+
+
+cluster_deref
+
+String
+
+
+
+pinned_box
+
+Pin
+
+ 
+
+
+
+pin
+
+
+
+
+pinned_box:c->pin
+
+
+
+
+string1
+
+
+s1
+
+5usize
+
+h
+
+e
+
+l
+
+l
+
+o
+
+
+
+string2
+
+s2
+
+7usize
+
+g
+
+o
+
+o
+
+d
+
+b
+
+y
+
+e
+
+
+
+pin->string2:target
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/src/title-page.md b/src/title-page.md
index 5248300f1..94ed0f8a8 100644
--- a/src/title-page.md
+++ b/src/title-page.md
@@ -1,8 +1,9 @@
 # El Lenguaje de Programación Rust
 
-*por Steve Klabnik y Carol Nichols, con contribuciones de la Comunidad Rust*
+*por Steve Klabnik, Carol Nichols y Chris Krycho, con contribuciones de la 
+Comunidad Rust*
 
-Esta versión del texto asume que estás usando Rust 1.78.0 (lanzado 2024-05-02)
+Esta versión del texto asume que estás usando Rust 1.82.0 (lanzado 2024-10-17)
 o posterior. Vea la [sección “Instalación” del Capítulo 1][install]
 para instalar o actualizar Rust.
 
diff --git a/tests/integration/main.rs b/tests/integration/main.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 6944fae69..000000000
--- a/tests/integration/main.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,22 +0,0 @@
-use assert_cmd::Command;
-
-#[test]
-fn supports_html_renderer() {
-    let cmd = Command::cargo_bin(env!("CARGO_PKG_NAME"))
-        .unwrap()
-        .args(["supports", "html"])
-        .ok();
-    assert!(cmd.is_ok());
-}
-
-#[test]
-fn errors_for_other_renderers() {
-    let cmd = Command::cargo_bin(env!("CARGO_PKG_NAME"))
-        .unwrap()
-        .args(["supports", "total-nonsense"])
-        .ok();
-    assert!(cmd.is_err());
-}
-
-// It would be nice to add an actual fixture for an mdbook, but doing *that* is
-// going to be a bit of a pain, and what I have should cover it for now.
diff --git a/tools/generate-preview.sh b/tools/generate-preview.sh
new file mode 100755
index 000000000..a5d9022b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tools/generate-preview.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env bash
+
+mdbook build
+cp ./tools/preview-robots.txt ./book/robots.txt
+ghp-import -m "rebuild GitHub Pages from generated-book" book
+git push origin gh-pages
diff --git a/tools/nostarch.sh b/tools/nostarch.sh
index 430b0809a..a9dd12d4d 100755
--- a/tools/nostarch.sh
+++ b/tools/nostarch.sh
@@ -4,6 +4,14 @@ set -eu
 
 cargo build --release
 
+cd packages/mdbook-trpl-listing
+cargo install --locked --path .
+
+cd ../mdbook-trpl-note
+cargo install --locked --path .
+
+cd ../..
+
 mkdir -p tmp
 rm -rf tmp/*.md
 rm -rf tmp/markdown
diff --git a/tools/preview-robots.txt b/tools/preview-robots.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..1f53798bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tools/preview-robots.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+User-agent: *
+Disallow: /
diff --git a/tools/update-rustc.sh b/tools/update-rustc.sh
index de04b3a07..8e674e056 100755
--- a/tools/update-rustc.sh
+++ b/tools/update-rustc.sh
@@ -2,6 +2,17 @@
 
 set -eu
 
+# Build book `trpl` crate dependency in the location where the listings will go
+# looking for it so they can compile correctly.
+echo 'Building book dependencies in tmp/packages...'
+mkdir -p tmp/packages
+cp -r packages/trpl tmp/packages/trpl
+cd tmp/packages/trpl
+ # hide the output; if it fails, debug then.
+cargo clean > /dev/null 2>&1
+cargo build > /dev/null 2>&1
+cd - > /dev/null
+
 # Build the book before making any changes for comparison of the output.
 echo 'Building book into tmp/book-before before updating...'
 mdbook build -d tmp/book-before
@@ -63,6 +74,16 @@ find -s listings -name output.txt -print0 | while IFS= read -r -d '' f; do
     # instead of a path to the computer of whoever is running this
     sed -i '' -E -e 's@(Compiling|Checking) ([^\)]*) v0.1.0 (.*)@\1 \2 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/\2)@' "${full_output_path}"
 
+    # Likewise, use a "default" installation directory for rustup's install
+    # location so the version of the source is not a path on the computer of
+    # whoever is doing the update. This does two substitutions:
+    #
+    # - Replaces the path up to `.rustup/toolchains` with `file:///home`, while
+    #   preserving leading spaces and the `-->`.
+    # - Replaces the version-and-architecture-tripl with just the version, so
+    #   e.g. `1.82-aarch64-apple-darwin` becomes `1.82`.
+    sed -i '' -E -e 's@^([[:space:]]*-->[[:space:]]+).*(\.rustup/toolchains/[[:digit:]]+\.[[:digit:]]+)([^/]*)@\1file:///home/\2@' "${full_output_path}"
+
     # Restore the previous compile time, if there is one
     if [ -n  "${compile_time}" ]; then
         sed -i '' -E -e "s/Finished \`(dev|test)\` profile \[unoptimized \+ debuginfo] target\(s\) in [0-9.]*/Finished \`\1\` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in ${compile_time}/" "${full_output_path}"